Glossary

lava flow that has cooled to have a sharp, blocky texture

acidic waters created as a result of improperly reclaimed mines or mine waste piles that can pollute rivers and other water bodies; often results in a characteristic yellow color to the water due to precipitation of iron hydroxide

adjustments made to reduce the adverse affects or exploit the benefits of climate change

smaller earthquakes that occur after the main earthquake

measure of reflectivity of a material

fan or wedge shaped deposits of gravels and sands formed where streams move from steep, mountainous areas onto flat valley areas

lacking in oxygen

term that refers to the human impact or influence on something; i.e. anthropogenic emissions are greenhouse gas emissions specifically as a result of human activity

body of rock or soil that has low permeability; may have high or low porosity

body of rock or sediment filled with water that has high porosity and high permeability

smallest size of pyroclastic material; made of small mineral grains and volcanic glass

mechanical layer below the lithosphere. It is the upper portion of the mantle that is weak and slow flowing

envelope of gas surrounding the planet

large scale movement of air resulting from unequal heating and cooling across the planet

how long a particular gas will remain in the atmosphere before breaking down or cycling back out

organic material that comes from plants and animals

energy resource from burning biomass

all living organisms and any undecomposed organic matter on the planet

portion of the water footprint from irrigation

seismic waves that spread through the interior of the Earth

large bowl shaped structure that forms when the volcano collapses on itself

impermeable rock that overlies a reservoir rock, keeping oil and gas resources contained underground

measure of how reliable an energy source is; measures how often a power plant is running at its maximum capacity

natural cycling or movement of carbon on the planet between living organisms, soils, rocks, water, and the atmosphere

smallest volcano type, composed of a rubbly pile of small fragments of solidified lava filled with gas bubbles

see scoria

current water rules regulating the discharge of pollution into U.S. water

long-term averaging of weather conditions - temperatures, rainfall, etc. - over several decades; typically 30 years or more

any process that causes climate to change

approach to climate action that focuses on the unequal impacts of climate change on marginalized or otherwise vulnerable populations.

computer simulations of the Earth system that can be used to recreate climate in the past or project how climate will change in the future

black, brittle, carbon rich sedimentary rock that forms from vegetation buried in swamps

agreement made in 1922 delineating how Colorado River water would be allocated for use between the Upper and Lower Basins and Mexico

pattern of cracks created when lava flows cool and crack into distinct hexagonal shapes

steep sided volcanoes composed of interlayered lava flows and pyroclastic material; typically explosive eruptions

Earth layers based on the chemical makeup of the material

the "pushing together" type of stress

the buildup of greenhouse gases within the atmosphere

process of changing water from gas to liquid

an aquifer that is located below an aquiclude

an aquiclude that lies overtop of an aquifer

no-till or low-till practices where farm fields are not completely plowed up at the end of the growing season

water that is taken from the hydrologic cycle, used, and then returned to a different place in the hydrologic cycle

see continent-continent convergent boundary

convergent boundary involving two continental plates

One of the two types of crust. Composed of felsic and intermediate igneous rocks and is thicker and less dense than oceanic crust

major drainage divide that separates watersheds that flow to different water bodies/different oceans

early theory of landmass movement proposed by Alfred Wegener

process of hot material rising and cold material falling due to density differences

plate boundary type where plates move towards each other

innermost compositional layer of the Earth

mixtures of crops planted in and around the crop being sowed/harvested

bowl shaped depression surrounding the vent

outermost compositional layer of the Earth

frozen parts of the planet such as glaciers, snow, sea ice, and permafrost

steeply eroded stream bank on the outside curve of meanders

water areas that lack life due to low or no oxygen conditions

landscape falling back down or returning to a pre-inflation stage following an eruption

deposit of sediment at the mouth of a river where velocity slows down as the water enters a larger body of water such as a lake or ocean

indicates how much an isotope ratio has changed relative to a standard isotope ratio

process of setting rock or soil material down/discontinuing transportation

direct measurements of climatic conditions taken using instruments

water that is used directly from the tap such as to wash dishes or water a garden

water that flows from groundwater back to the surface

measure of the volume of water moving past a point in the stream over a given time period.

amount of movement that has occurred as a result of an earthquake

plate boundary type where plates move away from each other

area from which water the water flows to form a stream; also called a watershed

high ridges and peaks that separate neighboring watersheds

prolonged period of abnormally low rainfall leading to a shortage of water

farming method where no irrigation water is supplied; all water requirements for a crop are met by natural precipitation

balance between energy entering Earth's system and energy flowing back out to space from Earth

expression of the likelihood that an earthquake of a given magnitude will occur at a location within a given period of time.

measure of how circular or elliptical Earth's path is around the Sun

portion of precipitation that infiltrates soil to an appropriate depth that is useable for crops

eruptions that are characterized by lava flows but not pyroclastic material; non-explosive eruptions

Deformation that is reversible; once the stress is released the material will snap back into its original undeformed shape

the action of a material snapping back into its original un-deformed shape once a stress is released

theory explaining where the energy released during an earthquake and the associated shaking comes from

the release of gases into the atmosphere.

energy resource that utilizes hot rock within the Earth even in the absence of existing water below the surface

process of increasing the concentration of the desired isotope to make it useful for nuclear power

form of institutional racism leading to environmental hazards being placed where they will disproportionately affect communities of color

location on Earth's surface immediately above the hypocenter

process of picking rock and soil material up/breaking rock and soil material off of a larger piece

process by which dead zones are created

process of changing water from liquid to gas

combination of plant transpiration and soil evaporation in the area around plants

the "pulling apart" type of stress

processes that transfer carbon in and out of the atmosphere over shorter time frames, measurable over a human lifetime

large planar crack through a body of rock along which there has been movement or shifting

flat surface of the fault that has ruptured in the past

with regard to climate, this is a chain reaction of changes which circle around to further influence the initial climate response

rock type that is rich in silica

large cracks along with lava erupts on the Earths' surface

occurs when magma erupts from a vent instead of through the main opening

massive outpourings of basaltic lava covering broad flat regions of the Earth

see surface irrigation

broad, flat, low lying areas on either side of rivers

process by which water moves from one store to another in the hydrologic cycle

process by which carbon is moved from one reservoir to another in the carbon cycle

creation of magma due to the influx of water; this melting type forms magma at subduction zone boundaries

see hypocenter

small earthquakes that occur leading up to the main earthquake

energy sources that are derived from ancient organic matter such as coal, oil, and natural gas

method where high pressure fluids are injected into wells to cause the rocks to break up or fracture, which can help release oil and gas

rocky portion of Earth from surface landscape features down to the core

the increase of temperature with depth inside the Earth

within an ice age, these are times of colder conditions with more extensive ice coverage

amount of energy 1 ton of a GHG absorbs compared to how much energy 1 ton of carbon dioxide absorbs over a given time frame, typically measured as 100 years

change in some measure over a change in distance; with regard to streams it refers to their slope

Beginning of the buildup of atmospheric oxygen resulting from the evolution of photosynthetic bacteria; occurred 2.3 to 2.5 billion years ago

portion of the water footprint from precipitation, either rainwater or snow

in climate, this is a climatic condition where the planet is largely continental ice sheet free

process through which heat is trapped near Earth's surface by greenhouse gases

gases that absorb and release heat energy at infrared radiation wavelengths in the atmosphere causing atmospheric temperatures to rise

measure of how much water has to be used to dilute pollutants such that their discharge will meet water quality standards in a water footprint

the vibration of the ground resulting from seismic waves, both body and surface, generated during an earthquake.

water stored in the pore spaces of rocks and soils

pumping and use of groundwater resources faster than they can be replenished; causes the water table to be lowered

see groundwater depletion

large circular flows of water in the oceans

unusually high temperatures lasting for a prolonged period of time

see mantle plume

measure of how much water is in an air mass

uses the energy of water flowing in a river to generate electricity

another term for the water cycle; pathways that water takes as it moves between different storage locations on the planet

liquid water on the planet

energy that utilizes existing hot water inside the Earth

exact location on the fault plane where the rupture happens and energy is released during an earthquake

water that has no or very low oxygen

see icehouse

climate conditions on the planet where continental ice sheets are present on one or both polar regions; also called an ice age

see virtual water

earthquake occurring as a result of human activity

movement of water from the surface into the ground

swelling of the ground associated with magma filling the magma chamber

inner solid metal portion of the core

measure of the impact of earthquake shaking on people and their surroundings

within an ice age, these are times of warmer conditions with decreased ice coverage

intergovernmental body of the United Nations whose role is to advance scientific knowledge about climate change

rock type that has a silica content between that of felsic and mafic rocks

earthquakes that occur in the interior of plates

supplemental water supplied to grow crops

arc shaped chain of volcanic islands created at ocean-ocean convergent boundaries

change in ratio of isotopes due to various processes

atoms of the same element that have a different number of neutrons

volcanic mud flow; mud flow that has pyroclastic material mixed with water

small to medium sized pyroclastic material; droplets of lava that cool in the air

molten rock on the Earth's surface

largest type of pyroclastic material made when solid parts of the volcano shatter and are thrown during an explosive eruption

largest type of pyroclastic material (with lava blocks); large blobs of lava that are ejected and cooled as they travel through the air, causing many to take on streamlined shapes

small mounds of lava that solidify around a volcanic vent formed by relatively small but very viscous eruptions of lava

molten rock that has flowed over the ground and then solidified

calculation of the cost of generating one unit of electricity to allow for easy cost comparisons between different electricity generation technologies

loss of strength of sediments when they are transformed into a liquid like slurry during earthquake shaking

outermost mechanical layer of the Earth that behaves like solid, brittle rock. Includes the crust and the outermost portion of the mantle (rigid mantle)

Rigid portion of the mantle that behaves like crust. Also can be called the rigid mantle

seismic waves characterized by side-to-side motion of the Earth's surface

rocks that have lower silica content than either felsic or intermediate rocks, and contain more iron and magnesium

molten rock below the Earth's surface

large repository of molten rock inside a volcano

measure of the size of an earthquake; measure of how much energy is released during an earthquake

largest compositional layer by volume of the Earth. Located underneath the crust

large convection cycles of mantle material partially responsible for driving plate movements

location where hot magma, generated deep within the mantle, rises through the lithosphere

large S-shaped curves in rivers

Earth layers based on the behavior of the layers

method of localized irrigation where water is applied at or near the roots of the plants

mountain belt or linear zone of high seafloor created along an oceanic divergent boundary

collective term for the cyclical changes in Earth's orbit and rotation; includes eccentricity, obliquity, and precession

measures taken to reduce anthropogenic warming, such as technologies to pull CO2 from the atmosphere or decreasing fossil fuel usage

scale used for measuring earthquake intensity

boundary between the crust and the mantle identified by a distinct change in density reflected in change in velocity of seismic waves

See Moho

modern scale for measuring earthquake magnitude

see mid ocean ridge

essentially water that is used and then returned to the hydrologic cycle at the same place it was removed from

contaminants that come from many sources over a broad area that get mixed together

energy resources that et used at a far faster rate than they can be replaced; require hundreds to millions of years to form

energy that utilizes the heat energy produce during nuclear fission

process by which radioactive isotopes breakdown or split

result from out of control chain reactions that produce more heat than the cooling fluid can remove

angle of tilt of Earth's rotation axis relative to its orbital path around the Sun

reduction in the pH of ocean water over time as oceans absorb more CO2

see thermohaline circulation

convergent boundary involving one oceanic and one continental plate

convergent boundary that involves two oceanic plates

One of the two types of crust. Composed of mafic igneous rocks and is thinner and denser than continental crust

precipitation pattern created as air masses condense and drop precipitation on the windward side of mountains leaving a dry, rain shadow zone on the leeward side

liquid outer portion of the core

the plate that is not subducting at a subduction zone boundary

horseshoe shaped lake created when a meander curve is cut off from the rest of the river channel

fastest body waves that move by compression

lava flow that has cooled to have a ropy texture

rapid warming event at the boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene epochs; used as the closest analog to present day warming

climate in Earth's past

incomplete melting of a rock; creates magma that has a higher silica content than the rock being melted

ground or soil that has been frozen for a prolonged period of time; does not thaw on an annual basis with the seasons

measure of how well connected the pore space with a material is

process by which plants use energy from the sun to convert carbon dioxide and water to carbohydrates (i.e. food) and release oxygen to the atmosphere

layers of semiconductor material that are designed to create a flow of electrons (electricity) when hit with incoming solar energy

bulbous pillow-like texture of basalt that forms when eruptions occur underwater

scientific theory that describes how the Earth's lithosphere is divided into large pieces that move independently of each other and interact at their edges

most recent portion of the Late Cenozoic Ice Age when glaciation spread across the Northern Hemisphere

any contaminant that can be traced to a single, easily identifiable source

sandbars along the inside corners of the meanders

open or void space between grains of rock or sediment

proportion of pore space in a rock, sediment, or soil; measured as a percentage

wobble that Earth's rotational axis makes over time

water falling from the sky to the ground in either liquid or solid/frozen form

lake created from glacial meltwater as glaciers retreat

indirect measurements of climate conditions used to reconstruct paleoclimate

see pyroclastic material

turbulent mixtures of gas and pyroclastic material that flow down the sides of volcanoes at very high speeds

material that was ejected explosively from the volcano; collective name for pyroclasts

general term for particles ejected from an explosive volcanic eruption

isotopes that are radioactive, meaning they are susceptible to breaking down naturally and releasing energy

seismic waves characterized by retrograde circular motion in a forward direction

water that flows down into the ground to replenish groundwater

energy resources that are replenished at rates comparable to which they are used; can be replenished immediately or within months or years depending on the resource type

porous and permeable rocks in which oil and gas resources collect after migrating out of source rocks

locations where carbon "hangs out" or is stored in the carbon cycle

process of using carbohydrates for energy and releasing carbon dioxide and water; "breathing"

old, outdated scale used for measuring earthquake magnitude

gravitation push of plates caused by the lithosphere sliding downhill away from the elevated mid-ocean ridges

another term for a divergent boundary; often used for a divergent boundary on land

uppermost portion of the mantle that is rocky and solid and behaves like crust. Also called the lithospheric mantle

zone on either side of a stream that is planted with bushes and trees to help reduce runoff into streams from farm fields

form of hydropower that does not rely on building large dams

subsection of a fault along which rupture and displacement occur

zone on the opposite side of the Earth from an earthquake hypocenter where s-waves will not reach; created because s-waves cannot travel through the liquid outer core

body waves that move by shear motion; cannot travel through liquids

influx of saltwater into groundwater aquifers as a result of over pumping and sea level rise

method of increasing water availability in arid regions by having a river build up a zone of sand that acts as an artificial aquifer to store water

rock or soil located below the water table where the pore space is filled with water

fragments of solidified lava filled with gas bubbles

More advanced theory of landmass movement proposed by Harry Hess that built on Continental Drift and proposed a mechanism for how continents moved

assessment that takes into account seismic hazards, building vulnerability to damage, and population in an area

the form that earthquake energy takes as it spreads out from the hypocenter

the wavy line record of the ground shaking at the location of the seismometer

instrument that combines a seismometer with a device for recording the waves

instrument that detects seismic waves

future worlds that represent the different possible paths human activity could take with regards to social, economic, political, and technological changes

the "sliding past each other" type of stress

large, gently sloped volcanoes typically with effusive eruptions

gravitation pull of a subducting plate as it sinks into the asthenosphere; partial driver of plate tectonics

processes that move carbon out of the atmosphere and keep it out for thousands to many millions of years by cycling it into rocks and sediments, locking it away in fossil fuels, or carrying it deep into the ocean

measures the damages associated with climate change resulting from increased carbon dioxide emissions and converts it into a monetary value; it considers impacts on human health, property damage from flooding and storms, changes to agricultural productivity, and the value of ecosystems

rate at which solar energy is arriving to Earth's surface per unit area

energy generated by harnessing solar radiation

energy transmitted from the Sun to the Earth

organic rich rock where the formation of gas and oil takes place

another term for a divergent boundary

irrigation method that relies on sprinklers or spraying water through the air

a storage location or reservoir location in the hydrologic cycle

see composite volcano

occurs at convergent boundaries when an oceanic plate travels down below another oceanic plate or continental plate. Only oceanic plates can subduct

synonymous with ocean-ocean convergent or ocean-continent convergent boundaries where subduction of an oceanic plate occurs.

lowering or sinking of Earth's surface elevation as a result of decreasing groundwater that leads to soil compaction

dark patches on the surface of the Sun caused by strong disturbances to the Sun's magnetic field,

irrigation method where water is flooded across the surface of a field; also called flood irrigation

movement of the surface layer of ocean water resulting from the transfer of energy from atmospheric circulation to the oceans

seismic waves that travel along Earth's surface

using resources in such a way that there is enough to meet everyone's needs without depleting the resource

large pieces of lithosphere that can contain continental lithosphere, oceanic lithosphere, or a combination of both

pyroclastic material that has settled on the ground; often used interchangeably with pyroclastic material or pyroclastic debris

whole ocean cycling of water created by density differences between the warmer and less salty currents flowing on or near the surface and the colder, saltier currents flowing deep in the oceans; it is the mechanism by which the whole ocean transfers heat; also referred to as the Ocean Conveyor Belt

converts the energy from flowing tidal currents into electricity

plate boundary type where plates slide past each on Earth's surface, neither moving away nor toward each other

movement and fault type associated with transform boundaries; often used synonymously with transform boundary

movement of water to the atmosphere through the action of plants; water is released through plant stomata

process of moving rock and soil material from one place to another

specific orientation or geometry of source, reservoir, and cap rocks that keep oil and gas from escaping to the surface.

deep area on the ocean floor created at subduction zone boundaries

stream that flows into a larger stream.

method that uses seismograms from 3 seismograph stations to locate an earthquake epicenter

large ocean waves caused by the  rapid displacement of the ocean floor; commonly associated with earthquakes under the ocean floor

rock composition with less silica and more iron and magnesium than mafic composition

range of possible outcomes based on the initial conditions used for a model

aquifer that does not sit below an aquiclude; unconfined aquifers typically have the water table located within them

rock or soil located above the water table where the pore space is filled with air

speed at which water is moving

openings at the Earth's surface through which the magma and gases escape, can be the main vent or side vents

the unseen water that is embedded in everyday products and services; also called indirect water

transfer of this virtual/indirect water through the import and export of goods

resistance of a material to flow

sulfur dioxide and other gases released by volcanic eruptions

location where molten rock flows or erupts at the Earth's surface

method for measuring the amount of water used and polluted along the entire supply chain of a good or service. Builds on the idea of virtual water but is more encompassing because it includes all of the water used, both direct and indirect water.

lack of water availability

combination term that includes water scarcity, lack of water quality, and lack of accessibility to water

level below ground that denotes the boundary between the unsaturated and saturated zones; the surface of the saturated zone

see drainage basin

technology that captures the energy in waves and converts it to electricity

daily or otherwise short term conditions (temperature, whether it's rainy or snowy, wind, humidity, etc.) occurring at a specific time and place

movement of air masses from high to low pressure areas created by unequal heating and cooling of Earth's surface

energy resource that captures the power of flowing air masses and converts it to electricity; typically this is done with wind turbines