Language

Definition

A language disorder is a breakdown in communication in one or a variety of skills that are required to understand and express needs, ideas, and information. It is critical to consider dialectical, cultural, or ethnic differences, as well as the influence of a foreign language when considering a disorder, as language patterns relating to the influence of another language must not be identified as a disorder.

Receptive and Expressive Language

Language comprises three sub-areas: receptive language, expressive language, and pragmatic language. Receptive language refers to the ability to understand language conveyed by others, including concepts such as answering questions, understanding vocabulary, and understanding concepts. Expressive language refers to the ability to express language (i.e., create messages) to others, including concepts such as using vocabulary, creating long/complex sentences, using correct grammar, and more. Pragmatic language refers to language needed for socializing such as the concept of turn-taking in conversation, topic maintenance (i.e., staying on topic in conversation), and nonliteral language (i.e., figurative language). The ability to convey language is found both in verbal and written communication.

When a student has difficulty understanding others (receptive language), conveying their thoughts/feelings verbally (expressive language), they may be considered to have a language disorder.

(University of Washington, n.d.)

Eligibility Criteria

The following criteria are taken from the Minnesota Department of Education and Legislature (Minnesota Revisor, 2007).

A student meets eligibility criteria under a Speech or Language Disorder for language and will therefore receive special education services when:

(1) the pattern interferes with communication as determined by an educational speech language pathologist and either another adult or the child;

(2) an analysis of a language sample or documented observation of communicative interaction indicates the pupil’s language behavior falls below or is different from what would be expected given consideration to chronological age, developmental level, or cognitive level; and

(3) the pupil scores 2.0 standard deviations below the mean on at least two technically adequate, norm-referenced language tests if available; or

(4) if technically adequate, norm-referenced language tests are not available to provide evidence of a deficit of 2.0 standard deviations below the mean in the area of language, two documented measurement procedures indicate a substantial difference from what would be expected given consideration to chronological age, developmental level, or cognitive level. The documented procedures may include additional language samples, criterion-referenced instruments, observations in natural environments, and parent reports.

Characteristics

When considering the concept of language, also consider communication such as the concept of getting one’s needs and wants met. There are three components that make up language: form, content, and use, which can be broken down into further specifics.

Language form comprises grammar, sentence organization, and small sounds that make a meaningful impact on a sentence.

• Morphology—Study of the rules that govern how morphemes, the minimal meaningful units of language, are used in a language to change meaning. (e.g., singular dog + -s = plural dogs)
• Syntax—The rules that pertain to the ways in which words can be combined to form sentences in a language. This is “grammar” (e.g., if using -ing, it will always be paired with a “to be” verb: She is walking).
• Phonology—The rules that pertain to the speech sound (i.e., phoneme) system of a language, including the rules for combining and using phonemes (when to mark plural tense with the “z” sound versus “s” (e.g., pronunciation of “dogs” versus “cats”)

Language content considers the vocabulary being used, the details provided in messages, and the message specifics.

• Semantics—The meaning of words and the hierarchy of vocabulary specifics (animal vs. dog vs. puppy)

Language use considers the way a student uses their communication skills with others.  This includes nonverbal skills, nonliteral language, and conversational skills that go beyond the words being used.

• Pragmatics—The rules associated with the use of language in conversation and broader social situations

(ASHA, n.d.)

Causes/Etiology

There is a wide range of causes of language disorders. Although language disorders may be experienced as an exclusive disorder with unknown causes, they can also often be comorbid with other health occurrences or disabilities such as:

• A neurological disorder (i.e., autism spectrum disorder)
• A brain injury or tumor (i.e., traumatic brain injury)
• A genetic disorder or mutation (i.e., Down syndrome, fragile X syndrome)
• Pregnancy and birth trauma/injury (i.e., cerebral palsy, fetal alcohol syndrome, prematurity, low birth weight)

(Stanford Medicine, n.d.)

It has also been found that language acquisition has a positive relationship with reading and writing. Students who demonstrate difficulty acquiring and expressing age-appropriate language skills also have challenges with learning how to read and write (Hulme & Snowling, 2013). Therefore, language disorders and learning disabilities are often closely linked.

A study done in the UK in 2000 found that an average of 2.6­–3.5% of students aged 7 and older are identified with a receptive language delay/disorder; 2.8–16% are identified with an expressive language delay/disorder, and 2.02–3.01% are identified with a combined expressive-receptive language delay/disorder (Law et al., 2000).

(ASHA, n.d.)

Language Difference vs. Language Disorder

Languages are arbitrary codes that are made up of rule-bound symbol sets. Therefore, each language is created to be unique, including sound combinations, grammar, tone, inflection, and stress. When a child learns their first (i.e., native) language, this is known as L1. When children are learning a second language (L2), elements of L1 may be transferred to L2 and are considered differences. This must not be considered a language disorder.

A study in 2015 defined a language difference as “the result of the normal process of second language acquisition and its impact on the development of the second language.” A language disorder as “deficits in language comprehension and/or production in both the native language and the second language” (Gillepse, 2015).

Consider a student whose L1 is Spanish, where adjectives follow nouns. When that student learns English as their L2, they may use English words, but maintain the Spanish pattern. For example, to describe a dog, rather than saying “the brown dog,” they may say “the dog brown.” This is considered a language difference.

Note. From Ben Blatt/Slate.

English Language Learners

Nonnative English speakers need to be carefully considered when there is a concern for a language delay or disorder.

Bilingualism does not cause a language delay. If the child is not talking in either language, refer to the SLP.

If a language disorder is suspected in a nonnative English-speaking student, an extensive review of the student with the evaluation team is required. It is imperative that the parents/guardians communicate at-home language information. It is also important that the evaluation team have an understanding of L1 grammar, concepts, and vocabulary to understand whether the influence of another language may be present. If the student is experiencing difficulties with a concept that is present in both L1 and L2, it can be identified as a disordered concept.

With English Language Learner (ELL) students, standardized testing materials are often inadequate. Dynamic assessments are the best way to assess the student’s ability to learn concepts during an evaluation. Other tools such as academic samples, language samples, and parent/teacher/student interviews are what will provide the most accurate information.

Team Interventions and Support

There are several ways to support your student outside the speech room. This could be provided by any adult who works with the student.

• Targeting semantics:
  • o Use a language-rich environment filled with descriptions of concepts and ideas.
  • o With children using low language (i.e., < 4 words per sentence), use at least one to two more words in conversation with them. For example, if the student says, “I see dog!,” reply back, saying, “I see a big, brown dog!”
  • o Collaborate with the general education teacher on the academic vocabulary being used in the classroom.
• Targeting syntax:
  • o Use gestural cues when talking about past/present/future tenses.
  • o Emphasize/stress target words used in conversation.
• Targeting pragmatics:
  • o Model with another teacher/adult expected behavior.

Explain nonliteral language that may be used in the classroom and around the school.