10.7 Chapter Notes

Layers of Earth’s atmosphere. Medium69. 2014. CC BY-SA. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Atmosphere_structure-en.svg

The ozone layer absorbs a portion of the radiation from the Sun, preventing it from reaching the planet’s surface. Felton Davis. 2020. CC BY. https://www.flickr.com/photos/felton-nyc/50768574522

Pie chart of Earth’s atmospheric composition. Dbc334. 2015. Public domain. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Composizione_dell%27atmosfera_terrestre.svg

Atmospheric pressure decreases as altitude increases. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). Last updated 18 December 2023. Public domain. https://www.noaa.gov/jetstream/atmosphere/air-pressure

Layers of Earth’s atmosphere with associated temperature changes. NOAA. Last updated Aug 20, 2024. Public domain. https://www.noaa.gov/jetstream/atmosphere/layers-of-atmosphere

Thermal profile of Earth’s atmosphere, showing the major divisions based on temperature. Benjamin J. Burger. 3 June 2020. CC BY-SA. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Thermal-Profile-of-Earths-Atmosphere.gif

Oscillations of electric and magnetic fields of an electromagnetic wave. Piotr Fita. 30 Jan 2023. Public domain. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Electromagnetic_wave_EN.svg

The percentage of diffusely reflected sunlight relative to various surface conditions. Wereon. 16 August 2006. CC BY-SA. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo#/media/File:Albedo-e_hg.svg

Solar radiation is strongest near the equator and weaker at the poles. Peter Halasz. 26 June 2007. CC BY-SA. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Oblique_rays_02_Pengo.svg

Earth’s greenhouse effect. EPA. 2012. Public domain. https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8e/Earth’s_greenhouse_effect_(US_EPA,_2012).png

Global distribution of relative humidity at the surface, averaged over the years 1981–2010. Greenmind1980. 4 July 2022. CC BY-SA. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humidity#/media/File:RH_wiki.png

Tropospheric clouds. Petr Hykš. 12 December 2018. CC BY-NC 2.0. https://www.flickr.com/photos/violetplanet/46239433602

Cloud types. Valentin de Bruyn. 3 January 2012. CC BY-SA. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cloud_types_en.svg

Advection fog layer in San Francisco with the Golden Gate Bridge and skyline in the background. Brocken Inaglory. 26 September 2009. CC BY-SA. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fog#/media/File:San_francisco_in_fog_with_rays.jpg

North American air masses. NOAA. Last updated 5 June 2023. Public domain. https://www.noaa.gov/jetstream/synoptic/air-masses

Source regions of global air masses (NASA). NASA. 15 November 2008. Public domain. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Air_masses.svg

Guide to weather map symbols for weather fronts. -xfi-. 14 August 2006. Adapted by Laura Neser. CC BY-SA. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Weather_fronts.svg

Illustration of a warm front. Kelvinsong. 31 December 2014. CC BY-SA. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:IsadoraofIbiza#/media/File:Warm_front.svg

Global map of the annually averaged near-surface air temperature from 1961 to 1990. Robert A. Rohde. 15 February 2008. Adapted by Laura Neser. CC BY-SA. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Annual_Average_Temperature_Map.jpg

Average air temperatures in New York City and San Francisco. Jturner20. 9 November 2021. Adapted by Laura Neser. CC BY-SA. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ocean_influence_on_climate_at_four_example_locations.png

A thunderstorm with a classic anvil at the top. Griffinstorm. 16 August 2014. CC BY-SA. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thunderstorm#/media/File:Single-cell_Thunderstorm_in_a_No-shear_Environment..jpg

A diagram of thunderstorm formation. NOAA. 7 June 2010. Public domain. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thunderstorm#/media/File:Thunderstorm_formation.jpg

Some of the features to be found in a supercell storm. NOAA. Accessed September 2024. Public domain. https://www.nssl.noaa.gov/education/svrwx101/thunderstorms/types

F5 tornado (upgraded from initial estimate of F4) viewed from the southeast as it approached Elie, Manitoba, on June 22nd, 2007. Justin1569. 22 June 2007. CC BY-SA. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tornado#/media/File:F5_tornado_Elie_Manitoba_2007.jpg

A diagram of the location of Tornado Alley and the related weather systems. Dan Craggs. 18 September 2009. CC BY-SA. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Tornado_Alley_Diagram.svg

Tornadic supercell. NOAA. 4 April 2007. Public domain. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Tornadic_supercell.jpg

The enhanced Fujita scale (EF scale). National Weather Service. Accessed September 2024. Public domain. https://www.weather.gov/oun/efscale

Tropical cyclone Hurricane Florence in 2018 as viewed from International Space Station. NASA Goddard Space Flight Center. 12 September 2018. CC BY. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_cyclone#/media/File:Dramatic_Views_of_Hurricane_Florence_from_the_International_Space_Station_From_9_12_(42828603210).jpg

Diagram of a tropical cyclone (hurricane) in the Northern Hemisphere. Kelvinsong. 16 December 2012. CC BY. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_cyclone#/media/File:Hurricane-en.svg

The Saffir-Simpson hurricane wind scale is a 1 to 5 rating based on a hurricane’s sustained wind speed. Thomas Cizauskas. 8 September 2017. Public domain. https://www.flickr.com/photos/cizauskas/36294300853

The common paths of all tropical storms, based on all storm tracks available from the National Hurricane Center and the Joint Typhoon Warning Center through September 2006. NASA earth Observatory. Image of the Day for 2 November 2006. Public domain. https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/7079/historic-tropical-cyclone-tracks

Hurricane Camille historical marker along US Route 29 and Virginia State Route 6 (Thomas Nelson Highway) near Woods Mill in Nelson County, Virginia. Famartin. 27 May 2016. CC BY-SA. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:2016-05-27_09_07_16_Hurricane_Camille_historical_marker_along_U.S._Route_29_and_Virginia_State_Route_6_%28Thomas_Nelson_Highway%29_near_Woods_Mill_in_Nelson_County,_Virginia.jpg

On March 29, 1881, snowdrifts in Minnesota were higher than locomotives. Minnesota Historical Society. 29 March 1881. Public domain. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blizzard#/media/File:Train_stuck_in_snow.jpg

Heavy snow during the January 2016 United States blizzard. NOAA. 23 January 2016. CC BY. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blizzard#/media/File:Blizzard3_-_NOAA.jpg

A high-pressure system in the upper atmosphere traps heat near the ground, forming a heat wave (for North America in this example). US National Weather Service/National Ocean Service. 21 July 2011. Public domain. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_wave#/media/File:Heat_Wave.jpg

The National Weather Service risk categories for NWS HeatRisk. National Weather Service. Accessed September 2024. Public domain. https://www.wpc.ncep.noaa.gov/heatrisk