14 Ch.14 Terrorism and Massive Impact Crimes

Ch. 14

Terrorism and Massive Impact Crimes

Introduction

Terrorism and other massive impact crimes cause substantial fear, worry and distress globally. These crimes tend to affect society tremendously, bringing change to law, policy and response in various societies (not just those directly affected). This chapter will examine massive impact crimes, exploring the correlates of and responses to these crimes.

True Crime Stories: Mass Shootings in America

Figure 10.1 Montage of some of the deadliest mass shootings in the United States. Clockwise from top left: The 2017 Las Vegas Shooting, the 2016 Orlando nightclub shooting, the 2007 Virginia Tech shooting, the 2012 Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting, and the 2019 El Paso shooting.

As we will discuss in this chapter, a mass shooting is defined as an event in which three or more people were shot (not counting the shooter). The Gun Violence Archive, an independent data collection and research group, keeps daily track of all gun violence in the United States dating back to 2014. Specific to mass shootings, 2022 is one of the top three deadliest years since the organization began tracking these data. As of December 21st, 2022, there were 636 mass shootings in this country. In the year 2021, there were a total of 690, and in 2020, there were 610. These last three years are setting a frightening trend, doubling the number of mass shootings for the years 2014-2019 that had an average of 348 per year (GVA, 2022).

The largest mass shooting in terms of number of deaths and injuries in U.S. history occurred in Las Vegas, Nevada on October 1, 2017. Twenty-two thousand fans were in attendance at the Route 91 Harvest Music Festival on the Las Vegas Strip when 64-year-old Stephen Paddock opened fire on the crowd. Paddock fired over 1,000 shots from inside his hotel room, a corner suite on the 32nd floor of the Mandalay Bay Resort and Casino. Over the course of one week leading up to the shooting, he moved an arsenal of firearms in 22 suitcases into two suites. These weapons included 14 AR-15 rifles, 8 AR-10 rifles, one bolt-action rifle, and one revolver. Some of the AR-15 rifles were also equipped with bump stocks that allowed them to fire in rapid succession, and 12 of them had 100-round magazines. On September 30th, he placed a “do not disturb” sign on the doors of both of the suites. For 10 minutes, Paddock fired indiscriminately into the crowd at the concert as they tried to escape to safety. When police breached the door of the hotel suite after the shooting, Paddock was found dead from a self-inflicted gunshot wound to his head. His motive for the mass shooting remains unknown.

Shootings like this, although on a smaller scale, have become part of American culture. No other country in the world experiences mass shootings with the type of frequency that we do here in the United States. This phenomenon is not only not getting better, it appears to be getting far worse and gaining momentum.

License and Attributions for Chapter Overview and Learning Objectives

“Chapter Overview and Learning Objectives” by Curt Sobolewski is licensed under CC BY 4.0.

Figure 10.1 Montage of some of the deadliest mass shootings in the United States. Clockwise from top left: The 2017 Las Vegas Shooting, the 2016 Orlando nightclub shooting, the 2007 Virginia Tech shooting, the 2012 Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting, and the 2019 El Paso shooting, created by JoleBruh, CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons.

“The source of every crime is some defect of the understanding; or some error in reasoning; or some sudden force of the passions.”

Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679), English philosopher

In this book, we have talked about different types of crime categories: those against people, property, or the public order. We also talked in Chapter 9 about the unique offenses of white-collar crime, cybercrime, and organized crime. In this chapter, we will wrap up the book with a look at massive impact crimes. These are the types of crimes that have many victims who are all connected through tragedy, affecting the community, society, policies, and even laws. This chapter focuses on mass murders and terrorism, as well as the efforts by law enforcement to interrupt these crimes.

This chapter, as in all the chapters in this book, may include triggers for some readers. Please take care of yourself as needed while reading about these massive impact crimes.

License and Attributions for Mass Murder and Terrorism

“Mass Murder and Terrorism” by Curt Sobolewski is licensed under CC BY 4.0.

Mass Shootings

Many contemporary mass murder single events are also termed mass shootings because of the use of firearms to kill or injure the greatest number of people in the shortest amount of time. These killings all happening in the same location and at the same time is what distinguishes mass murder from serial killing or serial murder and also from spree murder. These include shootings at schools, workplaces, or public locations or events.

The origin of mass shootings in this country is tough to pin down because it was not formally tracked until it became more common. In 1949, Melvin Collins opened fire from inside a boarding house and killed eight people before then killing himself in Chester, Pennsylvania. Later that same year, Howard Unruh went on what has since been named his “walk of death” where he shot and killed 13 people and wounded four more during a 20-minute walk down a crowded street in Camden, New Jersey. Howard Unruh is considered the “father of mass murder” despite not being the first. This is credited to the fact that he lived to tell the police all about his motives and plans. He also received a significant amount of coverage in the media, making his murders famous.

Years later, on August 1st, 1966, Charles Whitman committed what many consider to be the first mass shooting (despite Collins and Unruh who came before him). From atop the clock tower on the University of Texas campus in Austin, Whitman shot and killed 16 people.

School Shootings

Shootings in schools where students arrive heavily armed ready to kill their classmates and teachers have gone from being extremely rare to becoming frighteningly common. The incident most often referenced as the one that started this horrible trend is the massacre at Columbine High School on April 20th, 1999. Two high school seniors from the school, Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold, murdered 12 students and one teacher, and injured another 21 people. They then killed themselves in the school library. Columbine was, at the time, the deadliest school shooting in U.S. history and has since inspired countless others to commit similar horrific acts.

Even though Columbine was not the first school shooting in the United States, it changed how we saw safety in schools in our society. Schools now routinely practice lockdowns and have active shooter drills. Students and teachers alike are all very aware of the possibility of a school shooting on their campus.

Figure 10.3 President George W. Bush talks with former Columbine High School student Craig Scott during a panel discussion on school safety in 2006.

In Oregon, there have been two very significant school shootings, one of which occurred shortly before Columbine. On May 20th, 1998, 15-year-old freshman Kipland “Kip” Kinkel murdered his parents in their home in Springfield, Oregon. The next day, he went to school as usual at Thurston High School. He wore a trench coat to hide the five weapons he carried. This was a move later copied by the two shooters at Columbine. Kinkel had two hunting knives, a rifle, a 9x19mm Glock 19 pistol, and a .22-caliber Ruger MK II pistol. He also had 1,127 rounds of ammunition. He began shooting right as he arrived at the school patio, then continued into and across the cafeteria shooting even more. During this short walk, Kinkle fired a total of 50 rounds, killed two students and injured another 25 before being tackled and held down by seven students until the police arrived. He repeatedly begged other students and police officers to kill him. He pled guilty and was sentenced to 111 years in prison without the possibility of parole.

Kinkel was suffering from undiagnosed paranoid schizophrenia and had an obsession from an early age with weapons and explosives. He reported that the voices in his head made him believe that he had to kill his parents and everyone at school.

The second large school shooting in Oregon happened at Umpqua Community College on October 1st, 2015. Twenty-six-year-old Chris Harper-Mercer arrived at his writing class that morning, firing a warning shot in the hallway as he approached the classroom. Using two handguns, Harper-Mercer was strategic about which students in class he shot and was reported to have taunted some in the process. He shot and killed the professor and eight students, plus injured another eight before killing himself. He forced one student to sit in the corner and watch all the shooting, giving her a package to deliver to the police on his behalf. The package contained his manifesto citing other mass killers and ranting about his hatred of women.

The U.S. Secret Service National Threat Assessment Center (NTAC) analyzed 41 K-12 school shootings that occurred in the United States between 2008 and 2017. They looked at motives, behaviors, and situational factors related to the shooters to learn how future attacks may be prevented. They reported the following key findings (NTAC, 2019):

There is no consistent profile of a school shooter. They have varied in age, gender, race, grade level, academic performance, and social characteristics.

There is no consistent profile of schools that have been attacked. The schools have varied in size, grade-level, location, and type.

There is no single motive of school shooters. The most common is a grievance with classmates, but have also included anger toward school staff, failed romantic relationships, or other personal issues. Some school shooters were also motivated by the desire to kill, being suicidal, and wanting fame or notoriety.

Most attacks on schools are done using firearms. Those firearms were usually gotten from home.

Most school shooters demonstrated psychological (depression, suicidal ideation), behavioral (defiance, misconduct), or developmental symptoms (delays, cognitive deficits).

Half of the school shooters showed an interest in violence (such as being preoccupied with the Columbine shooting or Hitler).

All school shooters had experienced stress in relationships with peers or romantic partners within six months of the attack (half of them within two days of the attack).

Almost all school shooters had negative home lives, such as divorced parents, domestic abuse, or drug use in the household.

Most school shooters had been victims of bullying.

Most school shooters had previously gotten into trouble in school and many had prior contact with law enforcement through the school.

All the school shooters exhibited some manner of concerning behavior in the days leading up to the attack. Most of them had told someone of their intent to attack the school.

Our ability to predict and intervene is getting only marginally better. The signs are too often only clear in hindsight after it is too late.

Licenses and Attributions for Mass Murder

“Mass Murder” by Curt Sobolewski is licensed under CC BY 4.0.

Figure 10.2 1982 Mugshot of Gary Ridgway (the Green River Killer), King County Sheriff’s Office, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons.

Figure 10.3 President George W. Bush talks with former Columbine High School student Craig Scott during a panel discussion on school safety in 2006, Kimberlee Hewitt, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons.

Terrorism

The notion of terrorism was forced into the general consciousness of every single American on September 11, 2001 (figure 10.4). For many in the United States, it was the first time they experienced a terrorist attack on a large scale, even though there have been terrorist attacks in the United States throughout the country’s history. Prior attacks were of a scale such that average Americans could go on with their daily lives without being directly affected. That all changed on 9/11 and has continued to evolve ever since.

The quote “one man’s terrorist is another man’s freedom fighter” is attributed to multiple sources, including Gerald Seymour and Darrell Trent (1974, 1976).

Figure 10.4 The Twin Towers of the World Trade Center burning before they collapsed on September 11, 2001.

Defining Terrorism

Although we all have a general concept of what constitutes terrorism, it is actually somewhat narrowly defined. You may have seen arguments in the news over whether or not certain tragic events (like many mass murders) should be labeled as terrorism.

The State Department uses the following definition when determining what counts as terrorism (Title 22, Chapter 38 U.S. Code § 2656f(d)(2)):

Terrorism: Premeditated, politically motivated violence perpetrated against noncombatant targets by subnational groups or clandestine agents

According to this definition, the event is planned in advance and is committed for the purpose of sending a political message. Also, the victims are people not engaged in fighting a war, but they are attacked as though they are the enemy by people who see them as such.

The FBI defines terrorism in two distinct ways – international and domestic (FBI, 2022):

International terrorism: Violent, criminal acts committed by individuals and/or groups who are inspired by, or associated with, designated foreign terrorist organizations or nations (state-sponsored)

Domestic terrorism: Violent, criminal acts committed by individuals and/or groups to further ideological goals stemming from domestic influences, such as those of a political, religious, social, racial, or environmental nature

The common thread across these definitions is violence and motive. Simply put, terrorist groups or individuals carry out violent acts against innocent victims to send a specific message.

Terrorism can be international or domestic, and within domestic terrorism can be right-wing or left-wing. Both right-wing and left-wing extremists want to bring down the government, but for different reasons. Sociologist Mark Blumberg studied extremists groups and presented his findings to the American Society of Criminology in 1986. He argued,

“Leftists usually have urban backgrounds, are highly educated, and include blacks. Extreme right-wing groups consist entirely of white Christians and are often blue-collar and poorly educated. Both types of groups exploit legitimate political issues to attract members. They both also recruit from the military and prison populations. Their criminal offenses are similar and include bombings, murder of law enforcement officers, and attacks on government installations. Both types of groups pose a danger to the United States and need to be monitored.”

Domestic Terrorism – Right-Wing Extremism

The Right-Wing terrorist’s goal is to fight change from what they consider to be traditional American values. For this reason, the focus is commonly on resistance to progress regarding race/ethnicity, religious beliefs, reproductive rights, sexual orientation and gender identity, and immigration. In this perspective, white men are in control, women are subservient, and anyone outside of their preferred heterosexual, cis-gendered, native-born collective is seen as a problem.

Figure 10.5 Far-right “Three Percenters” patrol Emancipation Park at the Charlottesville “Unite the Right” Rally.

In 2019, Congress passed the “Domestic Terrorism Act” in which they stated, “White supremacists and other far-right-wing extremists are the most significant domestic terrorism threat facing the United States” (Domestic Terrorism Act, 2019). The groups listed in this bill are characterized by traits identified by scholars over two decades earlier as “extremist paramilitary groups oriented toward survivalism, outdoor skills, guerilla training, and outright sedition” (Hoffman, 1987). The Domestic Terrorism Act was created in response to a series of deadly far-right-wing domestic terrorist attacks. Some recent examples cited in the Act include (Domestic Terrorism Act, 2019):

August 5, 2012 – mass shooting at a Sikh gurdwara in Oak Creek, Wisconsin – one white supremacist shot and killed 6 members of the gurdwara

April 13, 2014 – mass shooting at a Jewish community center and assistend living facility in Overland Park, Kansas – one neo-Nazi shot and killed 3 civilians

June 8, 2014 – ambush of police in Las Vegas, Nevada – two supporters of the far-right-wing “patriot movement” shot and killed two police officers and one civilian

June 17, 2015 – mass shooting at the Emanuel AME Church in Charleston, South Carolina – one white supremacist shot and killed 9 church members

November 27, 2015 – mass shooting at a Planned Parenthood clinic in Colorado Springs, Colorado – one anti-abortion extremist shot and killed one police officer and two civilians

March 20, 2017 – murder of one African-American man in New York City – one white supremacist traveled to New York to seek out and kill Black men

May 26, 2017 – attack in Portland, Oregon on public transit – one white supremacist killed two men and injured a third who were defending two young women being targeted by the white supremacist with anti-Muslim hate speech

August 12, 2017 – attack in Charlottesville, Virginia at a protest – one white supremacist killed one civilian and injured another nineteen by driving his car through a crowd that was protesting a neo-Nazi rally (figure 10.5)

October 24, 2018 – mass shooting at a grocery store in Jeffersontown, Kentucky – one white man shot and killed two African-American people

October 27, 2018 – mass shooting at the Tree of Life Synagogue in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania – one white nationalist shot and killed eleven members of the congregation

This Act calls for the authorization of offices to monitor, analyze, investigate, and prosecute domestic terrorism that will be responsible for the production of an annual report on domestic terrorism; identification of training requirements and resources; and the creation of joint terrorism task forces, fusion centers, and an interagency taskforce (Domestic Terrorism Act, 2019).

Ku Klux Klan (KKK)

A classic example of a right-wing extremist terrorist group is the Ku Klux Klan (KKK). The KKK started in Tennessee in 1865 and consisted of former Confederate soldiers who pledged to fight oppression from the North. Instead of accepting the end of the Civil War, the former soldiers continued to fight for the cause they believed in, seeking vengeance through the violence and intimidation. They were a vigilante group that intimidated southern Blacks and Whites who supported civil rights. After the Jim Crow Laws that secured the domination of Southern Whites, the KKK informally disbanded but would have a significant revival in the 1920s with a focus on fighting immigration.

The KKK claimed to be a white Christian movement. They were anti-Black because of the belief that the Civil War had not ended and slavery should still be in place, and anti-Catholic since so much of the political power in the North was wielded by urban Catholic immigrants. As the KKK progressed in their hate campaign, they included Jews in the 1920s because of large waves of immigration to the United States following World War I. Including the two newest immigrant groups in the United States (Catholics and Jews) illustrates how the KKK’s hate increased because of a fear of immigration to the United States and losing their own dominance as a result. The KKK promoted White America and nationalism. They viewed themselves as 100% American and 100% White Protestant. They used dichotomies such as South vs. North, rural vs. urban, and religious vs. secular to divide the United States and focus their hate. The third rise of the KKK was during the civil rights movement of the 1960s, focusing on preserving segregation despite unfavorable court rulings. Although not often in the public eye any longer, the KKK still operates to support their mission and that of like-minded organizations.

The focus of many of these groups is the concept of “white genocide,” which is the belief that Whites in the United States are being systematically replaced and destroyed because of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and immigration policy. However, in their desire to form a “white ethnostate” they claim their desire for separation is not because of hate but rather because of the love of the members of their own race.

Though white nationalism was believed to be on the decline in the United States, it has once again reared its ugly head following the presidential election in 2016. Since then, there has been an increase in white nationalist violence and an attempt for white supremacist, right-wing groups to become more mainstream with their ideology and beliefs that can influence future action.

In the 1990s, there were two incidents (Ruby Ridge and the Branch Davidians) that fueled these movements. Groups in the “patriot movement” used these incidents as examples of government overreach and their need to bring down this oppressive regime. The patriot movement is a term that encompasses all right-wing extremist groups, nationalist movements, militias, sovereign citizens (those who do not recognize the U.S. government as having authority over them), and tax protesters (those who refuse to pay taxes). These groups are also fans of conspiracy theories, which we will discuss later in this chapter.

Ruby Ridge

On August 21st, 1992, federal agents came onto the property of Randy Weaver in Idaho to arrest him on a warrant for weapons charges. Instead of giving in to the arrest, Randy Weaver, his wife and children (one son and three daughters), and family friend Kevin Harris staged a resistance. During an 11-day siege, Weaver’s 14-year-old-son Sammy, wife Vicki, and dog Striker were all killed. All of the federal law enforcement agencies involved in the siege later faced disciplinary repercussions and were all found guilty of serious wrongdoing.

The same agencies, and even some of the same personnel, committed similar harms only six months later outside of Waco, Texas.

Branch Davidians

On February 28th, 1993, with the belief that the Branch Davidians (a self-contained religious group living on a rural compound just outside of Waco, Texas) were stockpiling weapons at their ranch, the FBI and ATF raided the compound (figure 10.6). During the initial raid, there was a shootout in which four federal agents were killed, setting off a 51-day standoff. On April 19th, 1993, the joint government agencies rammed the building with tanks and launched a tear gas assault on those inside. The structure caught fire and 76 Branch Davidians (including 28 children) were killed in the flames.

Again, the federal agencies were found to have made grievous mistakes that have since fueled right-wing extremist groups and conspiracy theorists, adding to the narrative that the government is an evil entity.

Figure 10.6 Branch Davidian compound near Waco, Texas.

Oklahoma City Bombing

It is claimed that the events at Ruby Ridge and Waco were the fuel that fired domestic terrorists Timothy McVeigh and Terry Nichols who bombed the Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma (figure 10.7). The Murrah Federal Building housed several federal government offices and a daycare center for their children. McVeigh, with the bomb-building support of Nichols, detonated a bomb inside a truck full of explosives that he had parked in front of the building. The explosion killed 168 people (including six children) and injured another 680. McVeigh was later quoted as saying, “I didn’t define the rules of engagement in this conflict. The rules, if not written down, are defined by the aggressor. It was brutal, no holds barred. Women and kids were killed at Waco and Ruby Ridge. You put back in [the government’s] faces exactly what they’re giving out. …I wanted the government to hurt like the people of Waco and Ruby Ridge had.”

Both McVeigh and Nichols were former military, and both became radicalized after Ruby Ridge and Waco. The importance of each of their military service should not be overlooked. In 2009, the Department of Homeland Security issued a report warning that disgruntled military veterans are at risk of recruitment and radicalization by right-wing extremists that will try to exploit their skills and knowledge they have obtained from their military training. When the report was released, Republican John Boehner demanded that the agency apologize to veterans. However, the report states a trend that did not begin with Timothy McVeigh and Oklahoma City and could be traced back to the Civil War and the creation of the Ku Klux Klan. The report contained further warnings of the belief that white supremacists were learning military techniques in the U.S. armed forces to later be used against American civilians.

Figure 10.7 Oklahoma City bombing.

Conspiracy Theories

The patriot movement spreads anti-government conspiracy theories, supporting their belief that the government has been infiltrated and subverted, making it no longer legitimate (which also means the laws are not legitimate and do not apply to them).

Some of the more popular conspiracy theories in the movement include:

New World Order – A secretive power elite has a global agenda to rule the world through an authoritarian one-world government. When this happens, followers of the patriot movement must be prepared for mass hysteria and ready to launch an apocalyptic militia uprising to protect themselves.

9/11 – The collapse of the Twin Towers and World Trade Center were the result of controlled demolitions by the U.S. government instead of the impact and fire causing the buildings to collapse. Some even place full responsibility for the 9/11 attacks on the U.S. government, believing they were secretly behind the whole thing.

QAnon – A group of Satanic, cannibalistic, pedophiles are operating a global child sex trafficking ring made up of members of the Democratic party, Hollywood actors, business tycoons, and medical experts. The claim is also that there is a pedophile sex trafficking ring run in the basement of a Washington, D.C. pizzeria.

Chemtrails – The water condensation trails (chemtrails) that are formed by engine exhaust behind airplanes and look like lines or streaks of white clouds are filled with chemical or biological agents. These chemicals are responsible for weather modification, psychological manipulation, human population control, and more.

There is an extensive list of conspiracy theories supported by the right-wing extremist groups in the patriot movement. They may seem like harmless lies, but they lead to terroristic behavior that is dangerous. For example, the QAnon claim that there was a pedophile sex trafficking ring run out of the basement of a Washington, D.C. pizzeria (otherwise known as “Pizzagate”) ended with a man traveling to the Comet Ping Pong pizzeria from North Carolina and shooting a rifle inside the restaurant. The restaurant owner and staff also received death threats from people who fell for this conspiracy theory.

QAnon believers, along with several groups under the umbrella of the patriot movement, were responsible for the attack on the U.S. Capitol Building on January 6th, 2021. There were five deaths during the attack, four officer deaths by suicide following the attack, and 138 police officers injured. The outlandish claims of these conspiracy theories are far from harmless and should be taken seriously.

Domestic Terrorism – Left-Wing Extremism

Left-Wing Extremists in the United States are associated with the goal of overthrowing the government not to create their own like the right-wing extremists, but rather to replace the capitalist system with communist or socialist societies. The left-wing terrorist claims they are fighting for equality, human rights, animal rights, and environmentalism by creating significant change in society, albeit through violent means. Left-wing extremism has also been called anarchist terrorism for their uprising against the ruling class and claims to offer hope to those who are marginalized by the wealthy and powerful.

The Weather Underground

The Weather Underground was the most active and well-known leftist extremist group committed to political violence in the late 1960s and early 1970s. They were a group of primarily college-educated individuals who were inspired by communist ideologies and embraced violence as a way to protest the Vietnam War, racism, and other social issues.

The Weather Underground was a splinter group from the more significant Students for a Democratic Society (SDS). The SDS was a nonviolent student group that saw the inequality that was present in the United States and believed our government was not paying attention and even creating marginalized groups throughout the country. The members of the SDS grew up in white suburban America and saw their parents live comfortable lives at the expense of the poor in their society.

Black Liberation Army

The Black Liberation Army was a Black nationalist paramilitary group that fought for revolution from 1970 to 1981. They promoted war against the U.S. government for the liberation of Black people. They are responsible for several bombings, killings of police officers, killings of drug dealers, robberies, and prison breaks.

Some members of the Black Liberation Army are still on the FBI’s Terrorism Most Wanted List. For example, Joanne Chesimard fled after escaping from prison while serving a life sentence. According to the FBI (2022),

On May 2, 1973, Chesimard, who was part of a revolutionary extremist organization known as the Black Liberation Army, and two accomplices were stopped for a motor vehicle violation on the New Jersey Turnpike by two troopers with the New Jersey State Police. At the time, Chesimard was wanted for her involvement in several felonies, including bank robbery. Chesimard and her accomplices opened fire on the troopers. One trooper was wounded and the other was shot and killed execution-style at point-blank range. Chesimard fled the scene, but was subsequently apprehended. One of her accomplices was killed in the shoot-out and the other was also apprehended and remains in jail. In 1977, Chesimard was found guilty of first degree murder, assault and battery of a police officer, assault with a dangerous weapon, assault with intent to kill, illegal possession of a weapon, and armed robbery. She was sentenced to life in prison. On November 2, 1979, Chesimard escaped from prison and lived underground before being located in Cuba in 1984. She is thought to currently still be living in Cuba.

May 19th Communist Organization (M19CO)

May 19th Communist Organization (M19CO) was a revolutionary organization active during 1978 to 1985. It was formed by former members of The Weather Underground and the Black Liberation Army, also including members of the Blank Panthers. May 19th marks the birthdays of both Malcolm X and Ho Chi Minh. Their goals were to free political prisoners in U.S. prisons, to steal from the wealthy to fund their operations, and commit bombings and other terrorist acts against the U.S. government. They planned to eventually move the United States from a capitalist economy to a communist society. During their final few years, they committed several bombings and robberies.

Some members of M19CO are still on the FBI’s Terrorism Most Wanted List. For example, Donna Joan Borup is on the run following a violent anti-apartheid demonstration at JFK International Airport in New York on September 26th, 1981. According to the FBI (2022),

During the riot, Borup allegedly tossed a caustic substance into the eyes of a Port Authority Police Officer, leaving him partially blind. At the time, Borup was a member of the May 19th Communist Organization, a Marxist-Leninist organization which advocated the armed revolution and violent overthrow of the United States Government. Borup, along with some accomplices, was arrested and released on bail pending trial in May of 1982. On May 20, 1982, an arrest warrant was issued for Borup after she failed to appear for her trial on a Queens County indictment which charged her with riot in the first degree and assault in the first degree. On September 14, 1982, a federal arrest warrant was issued for Borup in the Eastern District of New York and she was charged with unlawful flight to avoid prosecution.

United Freedom Front

The United Freedom Front was founded on Marxist ideologies of anti-materialism and anti-classism. Active in the 1970s and 1980s, this group is responsible for at least twenty bombings and nine bank robberies. They targeted large corporations, courthouses, and military facilities with their bombs.

Antifa

Antifa (short for antifascist action) is a political movement consisting of various small groups and individuals united by their militant opposition to fascism, racism, and other right-wing extremist ideologies. While most of their activism is non-violent, they are also responsible for harassment, property damage, and digital activism like public shamings on the internet. The public “outing” is to let people know their neighbor is a Nazi or to let employers know they have hired a white supremacist.

Figure 10.8 November 28, 2020 – St. Paul, Minn. — A man with an ANTIFA patch on the back of his vest arrives at the Proud Boys, Trump, Stop the Steal rally.

Members tend to subscribe to anarchist, communist, and socialist views and work to prompt a revolution that overthrows the current U.S. government to destroy the formalization of authority, capitalism, fascism, and the state (figure 10.8). Fascism supports a military-style dictatorship that denies individual rights and does not allow for any opposition. Antifa wants the exact opposite – no centralized government and full individual rights. Some argue antifa is just as dangerous as their right-wing counterparts because of the anti-government stance, whether they are fighting for positive causes or not.

International Terrorism

In addition to acts carried out by domestic right-wing and left-wing extremist groups, we also have to be on the lookout for threats from international terrorist organizations. The attacks on September 11th, 2001 were the largest incidents of international terrorism in the history of the United States. In a coordinated attack, two hijacked planes flew into the World Trade Center towers in New York City killing 2,759 people and injuring another 8,700. Another hijacked plane flew into the Pentagon killing another 189 people and injuring 200. A final plane that was heading for the White House instead crashed into a field in Pennsylvania (thanks to passengers onboard who overtook the hijackers) killing another 45 people. Nineteen militants from the Islamic extremist group al Qaeda were responsible for these suicide attacks that forever changed how law enforcement approaches terrorism.

Of particular note is that some of these terrorists lived in the United States for more than a year before the attacks and had even taken flying lessons at American commercial flight schools. Others were able to sneak into the country shortly before the attacks. They also easily smuggled box cutters and knives onto the flights, which they used to hijack each of the planes. This may be hard to imagine for anyone who did not experience airline travel prior to 9/11.

Although 9/11 was the largest and the one that caused the most changes in our everyday lives (which will be discussed more in Law Enforcement Responses below), it is far from the only international terrorist attack we have experienced in this country. Following are just some of the recent examples:

On October 31st, 2017 in New York City, 29-year-old Sayfullo Habibullaevic Saipov drove a truck into people on a bike path, killing 8 and injuring 12 “in the name of ISIS ” according to a note he brought to the attack.

On June 12th, 2016, 29-year-old Omar Mateen shot and killed 49 people and injured another 53 people at a nightclub in Orlando, Florida. He called 911 during the shooting to take credit and claim allegiance to Abu Bakr al-Bachdadi, leader of the terrorist group ISIS.

On December 2nd, 2015, Syed Rizwan Farook and Tashfeen Malik killed 14 people and injured 22 others at a holiday party for employees of the San Bernardino County Department of Public Health where Farook was an employee. The FBI determined Farook and Malik had become radicalized over the internet, becoming committed to jihadism and martyrdom. After visiting Saudi Arabia in the years leading up to attack, the two stockpiled weapons, ammunition, and bomb-making equipment, along with a support system of like-minded family and friends.

On November 5th, 2009 at the Soldier Readiness Center at Fort Hood in Texas, Nidal Hasan killed 13 and injured 44 in a shooting motivated by his devotion to the Yemen-based Imam Anwar al-Awlaki.

International Terror Groups

The U.S. Department of State lists ISIS, al-Qaeda, and Hezbollah as groups who continue to plot against the United States (figure 10.9). The FBI lists the following individuals on the Terrorism Most Wanted list:

#1: Abd Al Rahman Al Maghrebi, member of Al-Qaeda known for committing acts of terrorism against the United States

#3: Sajid Mir, chief planner of attacks in Mumbai that killed six Americans in the name of the Lashkar-e-Tayyiba (LeT) terrorist organization

#4: Abdullah Shair Khan, member of Taliban and Haqqani Networks

#6: Ahlam Ahmad Al-Tamimi, participated in 2001 terrorist attack of pizza restaurant in Jerusalem that killed 15 people, including to Americans

#12: Liban Haji Mohamed, provided material support to Al-Qaeda and is a member of the Al-Shabaab terrorist organization

#14: Raddulan Sahiron, committed kidnapping in the name of terrorist organization Al Harakat al Islamiyyah, also known as the Abu Sayyaf Group

#15: Shaykh Aminullah, provided material support to Al-Qaeda, the Taliban, and anti-coalition militias, part of Pakistan-based terrorist group Lashkar-e-Tayyiba (LeT)

#16: Ahmad Abousamra, took multiple trips to Pakistan and Yemen where he tried to get military training to kill American soldiers overseas

#18: Jehad Serwan Mostafa, member of al-Shabaab, a Somalia-based terrorist organization

#19: Jaber A. Elbaneh, provided material support to Al-Qaeda

#20: Abd Al Aziz Awda, one of the original founders and the spiritual leader of the Palestinian Islamic Jihad (PIJ) and has conspired to commit bombings, murders, extortions, and money laundering

Figure 10.9 Terrorist Group ISIS.

Of these Top 20 on the FBI’s Terrorism Most Wanted list, notice there are only 11 listed here. That is because the other 9 are wanted for acts of domestic terrorism. Of those wanted for international terrorism listed here, the groups identified are Al-Qaeda, Lashkar-e-Tayyiba (LeT), Taliban, Haqqani, Al-Shabaab, Al Harakat al Islamiyyah (also known as the Abu Sayyaf Group), and Palestinian Islamic Jihad (PIJ). Anti-American and anti-Western sentiment is common across all of these groups. For this reason, law enforcement must keep watch on all of them at all times.

Licenses and Attributions for Terrorism

“Terrorism” by Curt Sobolewski is licensed under CC BY 4.0.

Figure 10.4 The Twin Towers of the World Trade Center burning before they collapsed on September 11, 2001, National Park Service, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons.

Figure 10.5 Far-right “Three Percenters” patrol Emancipation Park at the Charlottesville “Unite the Right” Rally, Anthony Crider, CC BY 2.0, via Wikimedia Commons.

Figure 10.6 Branch Davidian compound near Waco, Texas, the Federal Bureau of Investigation, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons.

Figure 10.7 Oklahoma City bombing, usacetulsa, CC BY 2.0, via Wikimedia Commons.

Figure 10.8 November 28, 2020 – St. Paul, Minn. — A man with an ANTIFA patch on the back of his vest arrives at the Proud Boys, Trump, Stop The Steal rally, Chad Davis from United States, CC BY 2.0, via Wikimedia Commons.

Figure 10.9 Terrorist Group ISIS, State USA, CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons.

Law Enforcement Response

Regarding protecting Americans from terrorist attacks, former President George W. Bush said, “On the morning of 9/11, we saw that the terrorists have to be right only once to kill our people, while we have to be right every time to stop them” (U.S. White House Office of the Press Secretary, 2006). Although terrorist attacks happened on U.S. soil prior to September 11th, 2001, it was that catastrophic event that changed the way in which this country began to combat terror.

Changes Made as a Result of 9/11

After the attacks on 9/11, the United States realized that it needed to develop a much better national security strategy. This centered on the creation of the Department of Homeland Security. On October 8th, 2001, President George W. Bush issued an executive order establishing the Office of Homeland Security and the Homeland Security Council. The hope of creating this new office was to make the fight against terrorism more centralized and to provide coordination among agencies. Their task is to prevent and disrupt future terrorist attacks, protect Americans, key resources and the infrastructure, and continue to strengthen the foundation to ensure long-term success. Specifically, they provide “a concerted national effort to prevent terrorist attacks within the United States, reduce America’s vulnerability to terrorism, and minimize the damage and recover from the attacks that do occur” (Office of Homeland Security, 2002).

Also, with the passage of the Aviation and Transportation Security Act in November 2001, the Transportation Security Administration (TSA) was established. The TSA provides security for all types of transportation; recruits, assesses, hires, trains, and deploys security officers for commercial airports; and includes screening of all checked luggage. The creation of the TSA dramatically changed the traveling experience in this country. Security screenings to the level they are today (removing shoes, no liquids over a certain size, scanning laptops, etc.) are all new since 9/11.

After the September 11th attacks, Congress quickly responded by passing the Uniting and Strengthening America by Providing Appropriate Tools Required to Intercept and Obstruct Terrorism Act (USA PATRIOT Act) on October 26th, 2001. Under this Act, national security agencies were given nearly unchecked freedom to monitor phone calls, text messages, emails, and any other communications of anyone they suspected of criminal behavior for any reason at all. For this reason, there has been a fear of the encroachment on civil liberties and freedoms given to U.S. citizens by the Constitution and the Bill of Rights.

Despite privacy concerns, the Act continues. The main focus is on monitoring suspicious activity through the collection of communications information and data; conducting foreign intelligence investigations; controlling money laundering, and funding and enhancing national border security. President Barack Obama approved a four-year extension of expiring portions of the USA PATRIOT Act in May 2011. The provisions extended were the government’s authority to conduct roving wiretaps, their access to personal records of terrorism suspects, and permitting the government to investigate foreigners even when they have no known affiliation with terrorist groups.

On June 1, 2015, the USA PATRIOT Act expired. The next day, the USA Freedom Act was enacted, restoring several provisions of the original USA PATRIOT Act. However, the National Security Agency’s (NSA) controversial collection of phone data of Americans who have no association with terrorist groups was ended by a vote in the Senate.

Current Threats

The FBI is one of the agencies tasked with combating terrorism in the United States. This includes all types of mass murders, domestic terrorism, and international terrorism. They report that threats have evolved since 9/11 and, out of necessity, so has their approach. Specifically, they point to “lone offenders” and the internet and social media as the biggest cause for concern today (FBI, 2022). According to their website,

Lone offenders: Terrorist threats have evolved from large-group conspiracies toward lone-offender attacks. These individuals often radicalize online and mobilize to violence quickly. Without a clear group affiliation or guidance, lone offenders are challenging to identify, investigate, and disrupt. The FBI relies on partnerships and tips from the public to identify and thwart these attacks.

The Internet and social media: International and domestic violent extremists have developed an extensive presence on the Internet through messaging platforms and online images, videos, and publications. These facilitate the groups’ ability to radicalize and recruit individuals who are receptive to extremist messaging. Social media has also allowed both international and domestic terrorists to gain unprecedented, virtual access to people living in the United States in an effort to enable homeland attacks. The Islamic State of Iraq and ash-Sham (ISIS), in particular, encourages sympathizers to carry out simple attacks wherever they are located—or to travel to ISIS-held territory in Iraq and Syria and join its ranks as foreign fighters. This message has resonated with supporters in the United States and abroad.

As terrorism (domestic and international) continues to evolve, so must the efforts to stop these horrific acts.

Licenses and Attributions for Law Enforcement Response

“Law Enforcement Response” by Curt Sobolewski is licensed under CC BY 4.0.

Conclusion

The massive impact crimes in this chapter are especially frightening because they are so difficult to predict and prevent. One of the goals of mass murder and terrorism is to make everyday citizens live in fear. They want to disrupt our lives to such a degree that we can no longer be happy unless we give into their demands or adopt their political beliefs. The frequent message regarding living in fear is that if we do that, the terrorists and mass murderers win. Instead, we need to keep living our lives, demonstrating our own values, loving our families and friends, and working to make the world a better place for everyone.

Application Exercises

Research right-wing or left-wing extremist groups in your home town or area of interest.

View the FBI’s Terrorism Most Wanted list at https://www.fbi.gov/investigate/terrorism/most-wanted and compare those on the list in terms of alleged crimes, group affiliations, and where they are now.

Learn more about the Office of Homeland Security and their coordinated efforts at https://www.dhs.gov/. Explore the resources available on their website.

Discussion Questions

What are the different types of mass murders? What are the factors that distinguish them?

What are the definitions of terrorism and why, do you think, is it important to be careful about what is actually labeled as terrorism?

What are the differences between the goals of right-wing and left-wing of terrorist organizations?

What is the general ideology of right-wing extremist groups? How about left-wing extremist groups?

Why, do you think, conspiracy theories are so popular among the patriot movement? What is the harm in promoting these theories?

What can or should law enforcement do to prevent mass murder and terrorism?

Key Terms

Fascism

Mass murder

Mass shooting

Patriot movement

Serial

Serial murder

Spree murder

Terrorism

White genocide

Summary

A mass murder is defined by the Federal Bureau of Investigations (FBI) as an event in which three or more people are killed (not including the killer). The types of mass murders vary by the weapon used (such as a firearms, knives, explosives, vehicles, or even airplanes), by the perpetrator (such as a lone wolf, members of a cult, or religious extremists), by the amount of time between killings (meaning all in one event or with a “cooling-off period” between each murder), and also by the motive (such as hate/bigotry, mental illness, religious extremism, or politics). Serial is defined as it relates to a criminal element as “repeatedly committing the same offense and typically following a characteristic, predictable behavior pattern.” Serial murder is killing three or more people, but with an emotional cooling-off period between each of the murders. The cooling-off period between killings could be anywhere from weeks to even years. Spree murder is, again, killing three or more people, but in this case the time frame can be up to 30 days allowing for some time between some of the killings, and the murders typically occur during the committing of an additional felony. Many contemporary mass murder single events are also termed mass shootings because of the use of firearms to kill or injure the greatest number of people in the shortest amount of time. These killings all happening in the same location and at the same time is what distinguishes mass murder from serial killing or serial murder and also from spree murder. These include shootings at schools, workplaces, or public locations or events.

Terrorist groups or individuals carry out violent acts against innocent victims to send a specific message. Terrorism can be international or domestic, and within domestic terrorism it can be right-wing or left-wing. Both right-wing and left-wing extremists want to bring down the government, but for different reasons. The Right-Wing terrorist’s goal is to fight change from what they consider to be traditional American values. In 2019, Congress passed the “Domestic Terrorism Act” in which they stated, “White supremacists and other far-right-wing extremists are the most significant domestic terrorism threat facing the United States.” The focus of many of these groups is the concept of “white genocide,” which is the belief that Whites in the United States are being systematically replaced and destroyed because of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and immigration policy. Left Wing Extremists in the United States are associated with the goal of overthrowing the government to replace the capitalist system with communist or socialist societies. The left-wing terrorist claims they are fighting for equality, human rights, animal rights, and environmentalism by creating significant change in society, albeit through violent means. Left-wing extremism has also been called anarchist terrorism for their uprising against the ruling class and claims to offer hope to those who are marginalized by the wealthy and powerful.

The attacks on September 11, 2001 were the largest incidents of international terrorism in the history of the United States. On October 8, 2001, President George W. Bush issued an executive order establishing the Office of Homeland Security and the Homeland Security Council. Their task is to prevent and disrupt future terrorist attacks, protect Americans, key resources and the infrastructure, and continue to strengthen the foundation to ensure long-term success. Also, with the passage of the Aviation and Transportation Security Act in November 2001, the Transportation Security Administration (TSA) was established. After the September 11th attacks, Congress quickly responded by passing the Uniting and Strengthening America by Providing Appropriate Tools Required to Intercept and Obstruct Terrorism Act (USA PATRIOT Act) on October 26, 2001. Under this Act, national security agencies were given nearly unchecked freedom to monitor phone calls, text messages, emails, and any other communications of anyone they suspected of criminal behavior for any reason at all. On June 1st, 2015, the USA PATRIOT Act expired. The next day, the USA Freedom Act was enacted, restoring several provisions of the original USA PATRIOT Act. The FBI is one of the agencies tasked with combating terrorism in the United States. This includes all types of mass murders, domestic terrorism, and international terrorism. Specifically, they point to “lone offenders” and the internet and social media as the biggest cause for concern today. As terrorism (domestic and international) continues to evolve, so must the efforts to stop these horrific acts.

Resources

The FBI’s Terrorism Most Wanted list is available at https://www.fbi.gov/investigate/terrorism/most-wanted

The FBI provides guidance for How Citizens Can Protect Themselves and Report Suspicious Activity at https://www.fbi.gov/investigate/terrorism

Read more about efforts to counter terrorism by the U.S. Department of State at https://www.state.gov/policy-issues/countering-terrorism/

Licenses and Attributions for Conclusion

“Conclusion” by Curt Sobolewski is licensed under CC BY 4.0.

References

Annual country reports on terrorism, 22 U.S.C. § 2656f(d)(2) https://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?req=granuleid:USC-prelim-title22-section2656f&num=0&edition=prelim

Blumbergy, M. (1986). Comparative analysis of violent left- and right-wing extremist groups in the United States. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Society of Criminology in Atlanta, Georgia. https://www.ojp.gov/ncjrs/virtual-library/abstracts/comparative-analysis-violent-left-and-right-wing-extremist-groups

Domestic Terrorism Act, 116 U.S.C. § 894 (2019). https://www.congress.gov/116/bills/s894/BILLS-116s894is.xml

FBI. (2022). Terrorism. https://www.fbi.gov/investigate/terrorism

Gun Violence Archive [GVA]. (2022). Gun Violence Archive. https://www.gunviolencearchive.org/

Hoffman, B. (1998). Inside Terrorism. New York, NY: Columbia University Press.

Holmes, R. M., & Holmes, S. T. (2001). Mass murder in the United States. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. https://www.ojp.gov/ncjrs/virtual-library/abstracts/mass-murder-united-states

Mother Jones – Mass Shootings Database, 1982 – 2022 https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1b9o6uDO18sLxBqPwl_Gh9bnhW-ev_dABH83M5Vb5L8o/edit#gid=0

Oxford English Dictionary [OED]. (n.d.). Oxford English Dictionary. Retrieved December 20, 2022 via Dictionary box on Google.

U.S. Department of Justice Federal Bureau of Investigation [FBI]. (2005). Serial murder: Multi-disciplinary perspectives for investigators. https://www.fbi.gov/stats-services/publications/serial-murder

U.S. Secret Service National Threat Assessment Center (NTAC). (2019). Protecting America’s schools: A U.S. Secret Service analysis of targeted school violence. https://www.secretservice.gov/sites/default/files/2020-04/Protecting_Americas_Schools.pdf

U.S. White House Office of the Press Secretary. (2006, September 7). President Bush discusses progress in the global war on terror [Press release]. https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2006/09/20060907-2.html