Chapter Outline

Section 1: Brief History

Section 2: Ethnic, Religious, and Cultural Identity

Section 3: Political Culture and Civil Society

Section 4: Political Participation

Section 5: Formal Political Institutions

Section 6: Political Economy

Section 7: Foreign Relations

Section 1: A Brief History

Kenya has a broad, rich, and complex history. From its prehistoric history dating back to 1.2 million years ago to its current status as one of the world’s greatest tech innovation hubs, the country’s history is marked by indigenous cultures, wild animals, colonial influences, and modern development.

1.1: History and Political Independence

Kenya’s history is marked by the evolution from hunter and gatherer to agrarian and modern society. Oppressed under British rule in the 19th Century, Kenya’s struggle for independence gained momentum in the 1950s when many nationalist movements challenged colonial rule. The Kenyan tribes that suffered the most significant displacement by the British formed a rebellion group called the Mau Mau (literally meaning, Get out! Get Out! in Kiswahili). The Mau Mau rebellion lasted from 1952-1960, with the British army fighting back with the inscription of other Kenyans to fight their people, in addition to British soldiers. Mau Mau that surrendered were used to lead British soldiers to Mau Mau bases, ultimately to capture and kill the leader – Dedan Kimathi. Tens and thousands of Kenyans lost their lives before the British quashed the rebellion. Prisoners were held in detention camps, forced into isolation, labor camps, and tortured. However, global pressure mounted for state independence, leading the British to relinquish power over many states, including Kenya.

Kenya gained independence from the British in 1963, initially keeping Elizabeth II as the head of state and local leader Jomo Kenyatta as Prime Minister. In 1964, the country became a republic, at which time Kenyatta became the head of state and President.

1.2: Colonization

In 1885, Great Britian and European leaders gathered in Berlin to divide the African continent into territories for colonization. The conference, known as the Berlin Conference, serves as the world’s largest planned coup d’état and forced annexation of global territory. While Portugal, Germany, Belgium, and Italy took 15% or less of the continent under its control, Britain took nearly 30% of Africa (with France just behind it), including what was known as British East Africa, including Kenya.

Kenya’s colonial era began in 1895 as a protectorate (maintaining some form of independence). Kenya became a formal British colony in 1920 (having no control over its internal affairs). The natives objected to losing sovereignty as they watched whites settle on their. The British displaced hundreds of thousands of Kenyans and provided whites with 999-year leases on land that rightfully belonged to Kenyans. Whites settled in fertile highlands, displacing tens and thousands of indigenous Kenyans, mainly from the Kikuyu tribe. The British categorized Kenyans into squatters, contract, or casual laborers. Squatters comprised agriculturalists and pastoralists who continued using the farmland of absentee whites for sustenance. These squatters had to work 270 days free if caught by the landowners. Contract laborers and casual laborers earned meager wages. Other demands of the British were taxes which, if not paid, led to fines and mandatory free labor:

•All Kenyans must work 60 days a year for the government with no pay

•All Kenyan men must wear identity discs

•All Kenyans must pay a poll tax (headcount tax)

•All Kenyans must pay a hut tax (housing tax)

Their white employers poorly treated Kenyans with no reprise from a prejudiced legislative system. Magistrates were unconcerned when white settlers used a punishment of their choice on laborers. Hospitals were not concerned with Kenyans’ health issues, as religious missions took care of this. Nationalized schools allocated education revenue unequally, and students endured punitive public examinations and a curriculum that favored the superiority of whites over Kenyans.

1.3: Borders

Precolonial East Africa straddled the equator between latitudes 4° N and 4° S and longitudes 34° E and 41° E. Today, the coordinates are 0.02° latitude and 37.9° E longitude. Kenya’s capital city of Nairobi was spatially planned based on colonial racial segregation. Nairobi Located in South-Central Kenya, 140 kilometres south of the equator (NCC, n.d.-b), Nairobi’s coordinates are 1° 17’ 11.0004” South and 36° 49’ 2.0028” East, with an elevation of 1,680 meters (LatLong.net, n.d.). Surrounded by forests, cliffs, and plains of about 113 km2 (about the area of Manhattan), Nairobi is adjacent to the Rift Valley’s eastern edge and Ngong Hills to the city’s west (Nairobi City County Assembly, n.d.).

The first three spatial plans for the city were the 1898 Plan for a Railway Town, the 1926 Plan for a Settler Capital, and the 1948 Nairobi Master Plan for a Colonial Capital (Wanjiru & Matsubara,2017). The 1948 Plan described the European zones of the city as areas of economic residential development; The Asian/Indian zones were official housing zones, and the African zones were called workers housing. The places where the Africans lived were areas with undefined land uses. Informal settlements in Nairobi trace back to the colonial period when Africans were temporary city residents, especially the males working directly for the colonial government. African males lived in working quarters and could not bring their families to the city.

Section 2: Ethnic, Religious and Cultural Identity

Kenya is home to approximately 42 tribes with different languages and cultures. All have learned to live with each other; some are more dominant than others. Ethnic tensions rise mostly during presidential elections (every five years), founded in fear of one culture benefitting greatly over another.

2.1: Dominant Ethnic Groups

Kenyan ethnicities come from five major groups: the Kikuyu, Luhya, Kalenjin, Luo, and Kamba. The largest ethnic group in Kenya is the Kikuyu, with over 8 million people representing 22% of the Kenyan population. The Kikuyu and Kamba people occupy Nairobi and the Central Rift highlands. The Luhya, representing 14% of the population, inhabit areas near Lake Victoria. The Luo, 14% of the population, live in the western area of Kenya. In comparison, Kalenjin (12%) occupies the Rift Valley Province (11%), and Kamba (11%) occupies the southern part of Kenya near Tsavo National Park..

2.2: Significant Ethnic Minorities

Other ethnic groups of Kenya are the Kenyan Somali, Kisii, Mijikenda, Meru, and the Maasai Tribe, which still maintain a pastoralist lifestyle on preserved lands. The Kenyan Somalis comprise 6% of the Kenyan population and inhabit the Northeastern Province. The Mijikenda comprise 5.% of the population and live at the northern limit of Kilifi County near Tanzania. The Meru (4.2%) is in habit areas near Mt. Kenya. The tribe most well-known to the global community, the Maasai, only makes up 2.5% of the Kenyan population and lives along areas bordering Tanzania.

2.3: Official Language

Since 1929, English has been Kenya’s official language. This change was a result of the colonial era, during which local languages were forbidden. The native languages from the Bantu, Nilotic, and Cushitic-speaking tribes, which made up 34 dialects, were affected by this shift.

• Bantu-speaking tribes: Central (6 tribes) including Kikuyu, Wester (3 tribes), and Coastal (6 tribes)
• Nilotic-speaking tribes: Plains (6 tribes), Highland (6 tribes) including Kalenjin and Lake River (1 tribe) including Luo
• Cushitic-speaking tribes: Eastern (5 tribes) and Southern (1 tribe)

More dialects exist that blend similar linguistic foundations of the 34. There are 68 languages in Kenya spoken amongst other Kenyans, with English as a common language.

2.4: Dominant Religious Denomination

In Kenya’s pre-colonial beginnings, there were dozens of tribal beliefs. Most tribes believed in a single creator, “Ngai” or “Were,” meaning “God.” The Maasai tribe and some of the population in Samburu and Turkan have kept their ancestral religious faiths. The dominant religion is Christianity (86%), including the Protestant, Methodist, Anglican, Baptist, and Pentecostal faiths. The second largest denomination is Catholic (21%). The missions during colonial times heavily influenced this subset of the population. The fourth largest dominant group is Muslims practicing Islam ( 11%). The practice of Islam results from Arab traders whose influence along the coastline of Kenya, particularly the Mombasa Coast, impacted shoreline communities.

2.5: Significant Religious Minorities

The Indian Ocean offers an easy journey to Kenya’s Mombasa Coast. Up to 1963, 35% of the Kenyan population was from India. They made the passage to work as merchants and farmers and to build railways. Others were indentured laborers who had to work to gain back their freedom. As of 1757, Great Britian controlled much of India and directly ruled the country in 1858. With a more extended history of colonizing Indians, British ideology characterized Indians as loyalists who could tame uncivilized Africans. Hindus, Sikhs, and Baha’is are religious groups influenced by Indians that currently make up less than 2% of the Kenyan population.

2.6: Historical Ethnic or Religious Conflict

The legacy of British colonization in Kenya has had a profound impact on the country’s ethnic dynamics. Once peaceful and respectful, the various ethnic groups in Kenya now find themselves in a state of mutual distrust. Post-independence, a unified political voice for all Kenyans was not established. The African leaders who rose to power largely maintained the colonial structures, often to appease the West. This led to a power struggle among the ethnic groups, further fueling antagonism and division.

Kenya’s first president, Jomo Kenyatta, was from the Kikuyu tribe. As a result, the President granted the Kikuyu ownership of the “white highlands, ” the most fertile lands previously owned by white settlers. Kikuyu also benefitted from abundant schools, modern roads, expanded health services, and infrastructure (piped water, electricity). In contrast, other tribes suffered. When Odiinga (former VP of Kenyatta) ran for President, the Luo tribe had hopes of gaining benefits to improve their lives. When Odinga lost the race, ethnic animosities ensued. Whichever tribe held power passed benefits to their own. The Moi presidency benefited the Kalenjin. The same trends continued across the five presidential races in Kenya: Kenyatta (Kikuyu), Moi (Kalinjin), Kibaki (Kikuyu), Kenyatta Jr. (Kikuyu), Ruto (Kalinjin). The most significant conflict occurred in 2007 and 2017 because of disputed election results.

Other conflicts over land ownership, cattle grazing, and water rights have decreased since 2017. The 1992 Rift Valley conflict between Kalenjin and Kikuyu over land ownership is among the worst, killing 5,000 and displacing 75,000. Conflicts in 1997, 2005, 2012, and 2017 were much smaller.

Northern Kenya is a hotbed of ethno-religious tension. The area is a recruitment spot for Somalia-based Islamist terror groups like Al-Shabaab. Somali refugees also settle in the region, increasing tension over land use and societal benefits.

Section 3: Political Culture and Civil Society

Political culture and Civil Society play significant roles in Kenya. Over half the population has attended a political campaign event and over three-fourths support regular and open elections. Moreover, the Kenya National Civil Society Center works to improve democracy, human rights, equality, and freedom across the country.

3.1: NGO & Civil Society Activity

NGO activity in Kenya is vast. The top five NGOs working in Nairobi and rural areas are (1) Mercy Corps, (2) Amnesty International, (3) Oxfam International, (4) Save the Children, and (5) World Vision International. Most NGOs obtain funding from the US Agency for International Development (USAID) or the World Bank. Other agencies include Plan International, Doctors Without Borders, and CARE International.

Civil Society Organizations (CSOs) are regularly funded by top NGOs or local government funding. These organizations know Kenyan communities well and serve better with immediate on-the-ground help. Kenya has a diverse range of CSOs, with nearly 15,000 registered with the government. Some CSOs in Kenya are Muungano Alliance, YOD-International, The Ruben Center, SHOFCO, BLEP, Pamoja Trust, and Mukuru Promotion Center, showcasing the variety of aid organizations in the country.

3.2: Ethnic and Religious Identities

Ethnic identities in Kenya match the skills and talents for which each tribe is known. The Bantu tribes are known for being excellent farmers, while the Nilotic tribes are talented pastoralists. Together, they make up the bulk of the Kenyan population. The Kikuyu tribe is known for their intelligence and business skills, while the Kamba are highly skilled in basketweaving and wood carving. The Kalenjin hold top records in multiple athletic competitions and integrate music and dance into their activities. The Luhya are agriculturalists, and the Luo are skilled fishermen and growers of sugar cane.

Cultural practices play a significant role in shaping ethnic identities in Kenya. Rituals for circumcisions, marriage ceremonies, meal preferences, burials, and other customs are unique to each ethnic group, contributing to the rich tapestry of Kenyan culture.

3.3: Underrepresented Identities

Much of the same identity metrics outline the underrepresented ethnic groups. The Mijikenda tribe is known for sacrifice rituals, while the Kisii and Embu grow much of Kenya’s cash crops. The Kisii are also well-known for their soapstone carvings and pottery. The Somali tribe is entrepreneurial, and the Afro-Asiatic tribe is a descendant of Kenyan railway workers from India.

The Maasai tribe is known to be the most courageous and have remarkable tracking skills for wildlife. They are also the most knowledgeable about land preservation. Preservation of their identity has remained the same since pre-colonialism. The Maasai, spread across southeast Kenya and northeast Tanzania, are protected by the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP). International law protects the tribe to an extent. Recent actions in 2023 and 2024 have uprooted the Maasai who live on the Tanzania side of the border, which may push more Maasai into Kenya.

The new Kenya 2010 Constitution forbids gender discrimination in law and customs. For instance, women who are married have the right to inherit land. Other rights for underrepresented groups are the right to education, equality in terms of access for the disabled, and discrimination because of gender, age, ethnicity, religion, language, religious belief, or marital status is illegal. However, LGBTQ+ and any expression of homosexuality in Kenya is illegal, with a penalty of 14-21 years imprisonment.

3.4: Public Opinion polling

Pew Research Center, Freedom House, and Afrobarometer frequently take public opinion polls in Kenya. Polls regarding identity focus primarily on politics and electoral violence. Afrobarometer noted in 2022 that 54% of Kenyans (all ethnic groups) do not trust the electoral commission to count electoral votes fairly.

3.5: Governance

Governance in Kenya is democratic. The country operates with three branches of government: executive, bicameral parliament (Senate and National Assembly), and judiciary. The country’s first election was under one-party rule, with the Kikuyu tribe in power. In 1991, Kenya introduced the multiparty electorate in response to citizens, students, and civil society’s demands for more freedom. Kenya’s first multiparty election in 1992 influenced further reform enforced under the Political Parties Act of 2011.

Kenya’s current democratic status, as rated by Freedom House, is ‘partly free’. This rating, with a score of 52/100, reflects the country’s partly free political rights (22) and civil liberties (30). However, Kenya faces key challenges such as pervasive corruption and the vulnerability of journalists and human rights defenders. The World Economics Governance Index gives Kenya a ‘D’ ranking with 43.1 points, placing it below countries like Senegal (C rating) and Ghana (B rating). Transparency International ranks Kenya 128/180 for corruption perception, highlighting issues with corrupt officials, restricted civic space, and access to justice.

Section 4: Political Participation

Political participation is high among voting-aged men and women in Kenya. With a population of 54 million people, 20% are under the voting age, and nearly 30% are between the ages of 18 and 34. Another 23% are between ages 3 and -64, leaving 3% 65 and above. Though voter registration is not compulsory, 22.1 million citizens are registered. Of that number, over 14 million citizens voted in the 2022 presidential elections.

4.1: Political Parties

Kenya has 27 registered political parties. The main parties are the Jubilee Coalition, which includes three parties: Jubilee (JP), Kenya African National Union (KANU), and the United Democratic Alliance (UDA). The Coalition consists of six parties, two of which received no votes in past elections: Orange Democratic Movement (ODM), Wiper Democratic Movement-Kenya (WDM-K), Amani National Congress (ANC), and Forum for Restoration of Democracy-Kenya (FORD-K). See the table below for an overview of ideological positions.

Table 4.1: Kenya -Democratic Parties (Wikipedia, 2024)

4.2: Interests Groups

Over 16 interest groups are active in Kenya. The four key groups are the Federation of Kenya Employers, the Inter-Religious Council of Kenya, the Kenya Association of Manufacturers, and the Kenya Association of Tour Operators. Government committees represent each of these interest groups. The groups hold parastatal status, meaning they have some political authority serving the state indirectly. Some are clear about how they are appointed parastatal status; some are not. Under the categories in the table below, interest groups include manufacturers, property developers, the private security industry, and retail traders (see table below).

4.3: Electoral Systems

The electoral system in Kenya consists of a bicameral parliament structure comprising a National Assembly and a Senate. Three-hundred thirty-seven members are elected across 290 constituencies. Candidates must be citizens of at least ten years, 18 years or older, and of sound mind. Candidates must have post-secondary school education and not be subject to a prison sentence at least six months prior to running for office. A non-refundable nomination fee of 20,000 Kenyan shillings (approximately $ 200 USD) is necessary for a male candidate, and 10,000 Kenyan Shillings (approximately $ 100 USD) for youth, women, or disabled candidates.

Section 5: Formal Political Institutions

The formal political institutions of Kenya are the executive branch, led by an elected president, the bicameral parliament, and the judiciary. According to the new 2010 Kenyan Constitution, the president serves as both head of state and head of government in a multi-party system.

5.1: Democracy

Democracy began in Kenya with the opening of a multi-party system in 1992. Since then, Kenya has held open presidential elections every five years: 1992, 1997, 2002, 2007, 2013, 2017, and most recently, 2022. The number of candidates running for office was the highest in 1997 (see table above). Human rights issues and unlawful killings remain an issue, though the country’s progress in democratic practices continues to improve.

5.2: Legislative System

The legislative system in Kenya is bi-cameral, comprised of the Senate (upper house) and State Assembly (lower house). Together, they comprise the two houses of parliament based at the Parliament Building in Kenya’s capital city, Nairobi. The role of parliament is to promote democratic governance through the law and passing constitutional amendments, and it must represent the will of the people. The role of the Senate is to represent the interests of counties. In contrast, the National Assembly represents all constituencies regarding taxes, loans, and financial bills concerning county governments, as well as basic provisions such as food, water, employment opportunities, and national trade. There are 67 seats in the Senate and 349 seats in the National Assembly.

5.3: Executive System

The Head of State, the President, is elected every five years by public ballot. Candidates and their running mates get nominated by their party to run for office. A preliminary nomination occurs across party lines. After a candidate is nominated, he or she may run for office. When only one candidate is nominated, he or she is declared Head of State. Where two or more candidates are nominated, all persons registered to vote are entitled to one vote. Polls by individual ballot dropped into a secure box are guarded by election monitors.

An election monitoring body from several democratic countries may be present at voting polls to ensure democratic procedures and vote count accuracy. The countries that participated in the oversight of the 2022 Kenyan elections were the UN, the Norwegian Embassy, and several other multilateral organizations. A candidate who received more than half the votes and at least 25% of votes in more than half the counties is elected President.

The presidential cabinet (Cabinet Secretaries) is nominated by the President and approved by Parliament. This underscores the President’s responsibility to form a capable and effective cabinet. The cabinet’s function is to help direct government policy on national issues. The cabinet can be formed with a minimum of 14 seats and a maximum of 22 seats.

5.4: Judiciary

Kenya has a legal system based on customary, Islamic, and common law. The mixture can sometimes hinder development, institutional strengthening, and international law. The judiciary in Kenya operates at two levels – Superior and Subordinate Court. A President of Courts rules the Superior Court, i.e., the Supreme, Appeals, and High Court. A Principal Judge, elected by the judges of High Courts, answers to the Chief Justice for administration and court management. The judiciary also includes the Environment and Land Court and the Employment and Labor Relations. Subordinate courts are local magistrate courts that hear most of Kenya’s civil and criminal cases.

Section 6: Political Economy

Kenya’s political economy is centralized, with strong executive power but weak ideologies. However, the current president, William Ruto, has taken a different approach to boosting the economy, albeit hindered by considerable debt from the previous administration.

6.1: Political Economy

Kenya’s economy has been hurt badly by the pandemic. The county received $750 million USD for economic recovery from World Bank in 2021. More money was lent to Kenya by the IMF, bringing the total to $2.34 billion USD by April 2021, with another billion added in July 2023. Moreover, the prior existing debt was at $83 billion USD. Despite the debt, the new 2022 President has launched an outreach to foreign countries and manufacturers to solicit Foreign Direct Investment to re-write Kenya’s economy. Some of those manufacturing companies include Google, Levi Strauss, The Gap, and Microsoft.

6.2: Major trading Partners

Kenya, with its liberal/market-oriented position on trade, has fostered strong bilateral and multilateral relationships within East Africa (Uganda, Tanzania, Rwanda). Its off-continent trading partners include Europe, China, India, Pakistan, Netherlands, the UAE, Saudi Arabia, and the US. This economic approach has propelled Kenya to become the fourth-largest economy in sub-Saharan Africa. In 2022, its most common partners accepting Kenya’s exports were the US ($722M USD), Uganda ($677M USD), Pakistan ($541M USD), Netherlands ($502M USD), and Rwanda ($439M USD).

Kenya is a member of the East African Community (EAC), the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA), and the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA).

6.4: Import/Export

Kenya’s geographical location makes it a good partner for import/export business. It sits at the gateway to other East African countries and has a modern port in Mombasa connected to a railway system modernized in 2017. The port has a 48-hour turnaround time, which enhances its competitiveness. In 2023, export value into Kenya from the US was $493.5 million per the Global Trade Atlas. Examples of US products imported into Kenya are petroleum products, chemicals, and aerospace parts. Kenya’s exports to partners include agriculture, accounting for 33% of the country’s gross domestic product and 65% of export earnings. The agriculture industry is the largest employer in Kenya, employing more than 40% of the population. Other exports from Kenya include coffee, textiles, cement, iron and steel products.

Import Substitution was adopted in Kenya to protect consumer goods over capital goods and shield the local manufacturing industry. High tariff barriers and quantity restriction policies protect local producers.

6.5: Bank/Institutional Projects

The African Development Bank (ADB) is the primary local institution able to finance projects across the continent. As of Feb 2024, the bank agreed on a new 5-year plan to improve growth and human development. The plan is designed to increase private-sector growth for the structural transformation of Kenya’s economy, with a specific focus on four areas: water, transport, skills, and economic governance. These areas have been chosen for their potential to reduce travel time on roads and improve access to affordable water, sanitation, and irrigation for farms, thereby significantly impacting Kenya’s development.

The World Bank, the UN, and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) have a 60-year history of offering loans, hands-on engagement, and advisement for projects to improve economics and human development in Kenya. The UN has partnered with the Kenyan government on affordable housing projects. The World Bank has provided loans for infrastructure in Kenya’s poorest rural areas, and the IMF has worked with the Kenyan President and his staff on reforms to improve economic sustainability.

6.6: Economic Status

Recent changes to Kenya’s economic status result from debt from the pandemic and loans from China for infrastructure projects. Kenya’s debt ratio nearly doubled from 41% to 78% of its gross domestic product. Key issues are high youth unemployment, lack of jobs, and corruption within institutions. As of 2024, the country is under strict reforms led by the IMF, as government expenditures to pay debt are 60% of its revenue as of June 2024. According to Reuters, Kenya’s credit rating has improved from B- to B due to the country’s repeal of the 2024/25 Finance Bill. However, Kenya’s Moody credit rating is Caa1, meaning the country has a high credit risk. See Figure 6.6 for historical debt from 2019 and future projections.

Section 7: Foreign Relations

Kenya’s foreign policy has been focused on peace and prosperity since 2014, is inclusive, and invites global participation. President Uhuru Kenyatta, elected in 2013, has made a concerted effort to make Kenya globally competitive while protecting the country’s interests. Foreign relations policy and efforts were and remain in line with 2002 President Mwai Kibaki, whose national vision for development is referred to as Vision 2030.

The goal of the vision is to transform Kenya and industrialize it to become a middle-income nation by 2030. The progress has involved key foreign partners: the US, China, and Public-Private Partnerships. In 2015, Marketing to attract foreign business emphasized opportunities under the Special Economic Zones Act. Investment in all sectors was made welcome across 47 county governments in Kenya. The timing of these foreign policies also coincides with President Uhuru Kenyatta’s Big Four Agenda to attract foreign businesses to partner with Kenya for (1) food security, (2) manufacturing, (3) universal healthcare, and (4) affordable housing.

7.1: Role in the UN

Kenya is home to one of the four major UN offices outside of the UN headquarters in New York. The Nairobi office serves as the UN Headquarters in Africa. In 2021, Kenya presided over the opening of the UN Security Council. It was a historic first in the country’s diplomacy and foreign policy. Kenya’s role as rotational lead of the UN Security Council marks great progress for a country with only a two-year tenure at the council. Kenya’s role in Security Council demonstrates its keeping with strategic goals to shape and enhance peace and security in Kenya.

Kenya is also a member of the World Bank, International Criminal Court (ICC), the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW), the Permanent Court of Arbitration (PCA), and the Common fund for Commodities.

7.2: Military Assistance from Kenya

In the spring of 2024, Kenya embarked on a peacekeeping mission in Haiti in response to gangs overtaking the government and terrorizing citizens, displacing over 578,000 people. Five to seven additional countries join Kenya, providing personnel and military assistance to return control to the Haitian government. The Kenya-led multinational security support mission is backed by $60 million in US funding for riot gear, Humvees, sniper rifles, surveillance drones, firearms, and ammunition. Over $300 million USD is allocated to the mission.

7.3: UN Assistance to Kenya

The UN has aided Kenya in several ways. The capital city, Nairobi, is home to UN country offices, including the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the International Organization of Migration (IOM), the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), and the Association of Former International Civil Servants in Kenya (AFICS-Kenya). These organizations offer direct services to Kenya, including advocacy and capacity building.

The UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights has supported accountability for human rights violations and the protection of civil society. The UNDP operates projects in Kenya in five areas: poverty reduction, democratic governance, peacebuilding and conflict resolution, energy and environment, and disaster risk reduction. UN-HABITAT has worked with Kenya on slum upgrading and emergency shelter during the recent climate-induced flood disaster in May 2024.

7.4: Regional Partners

Kenya has six key regional partners across 14 counties: (1) the Democratic Republic of Congo, (2) Burundi, (3) Rwanda, (4) South Sudan, (5) Somalia, and (6) Uganda. All are part of the East African Community. Regional trade blocks include the Lake Region (LREB), North Rift (NOREB), Turkana’s Frontier Counties Development Council (FCDC), West Pokot-Jumuia Ya Kaunti Za Pwani, Mombasa Southeastern Kenya Bloc, and Mt. Kenya and Aberdares Region.

7.5: Defense

The Kenya Defense Forces (KDF) consist of the Kenya Army, Navy, and Air Force. The military budget for defense in 2022 was $1.14B USD. Soldiers are not exempt from paying taxes and must be between 18 and 26 to serve. Kenya has 24,000 armed forces personnel.

With growing issues of terror attacks along Kenya’s borders and in the East African region, Kenya was invited by the UN and the African Union to join the African Union Mission in Somalia (AMISON), a regional peacekeeping force. This multilateral defense alliance brings together defense forces from Uganda, Burundi, Djibouti, Ethiopia, and Kenya. As of June 2024, Kenya is the newest major non-NATO ally. This action emphasized the importance of security in the East Africa Region. Kenya’s bilateral defense agreement is with the US.

Suggestions for Further Study

Websites:

US Dept. of State Country Reports on Kenya – https://www.state.gov

Government of Kenya – https://www.president.go.ke

The World Bank Kenya – https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/kenya

Journal Articles:

https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/political-science/articles/10.3389/fpos.2024.1331229/full

https://www.brookings.edu/collection/foresight-africa-2024/

https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2024/07/09/kenyas-deadly-gen-z-protests-could-change-the-country

Books:

Pashayan, A. R. (2023). Development in Africa’s Informal Settlements; Below the Proletariat. VERNON PRESS.

Barsby, J. (2017). Culture smart! Kenya: The Essential Guide to Customs & Cultures. Kuperard Press, London.. 

Rodney, W. (1982). How Europe underdeveloped Africa. Howard University Press. 

References

Section 1

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Alavi, M. (2023, January 4). British Genocide in Kenya: Time for a reckoning – FPIF. Foreign Policy in Focus. https://fpif.org/british-genocide-in-kenya-time-for-a-reckoning/

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Latitude. (n.d). Kenya map. https://latitude.to/map/ke/kenya#google_vignette

Section 2

Ministry of East African Community, Arid and Semi-Arid Lands, and Regional Development. (2023). People and culture. https://rb.gy/7us2he

Nabea, W. (2009, September). Language Policy in Kenya: Negotiation with Hegemony. The Journal of Pan-African Studies, 3(1), 121-138. https://rb.gy/v4hjtz

Paulson, S. (2021, March 20). Never write in the language of the colonizer. Wisconsin Public Radio. https://www.wpr.org/books/never-write-language-colonizer

FamilySearch.org (2024, March 20). Kenya languages. https://www.familysearch.org/en/wiki/Kenya_Languages

Doochin, D. (2019, August 31). What languages are spoken in Kenya? Babbel Magazine. https://www.babbel.com/en/magazine/what-language-is-spoken-in-kenya

Muinde, J. M., Bhanu, D. R. C., Neumann, R., Oduor, R. O., Kanja, W., Kimani, J. K., Mutugi, M. W., Smith, L., Jobling, M. A., & Wetton, J. H. (2021). Geographical and linguistic structure in the people of Kenya demonstrated using 21 autosomal STRs. Forensic Science International Genetics, 53, 102535. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fsigen.2021.102535

Agutu, N. (2020, February 21). Kikuyu, Luhya and Kalenjin make up almost half of Kenyan population. The Star. https://www.the-star.co.ke/news/2020-02-21-kikuyu-luhya-and-kalenjin-make-up-almost-half-of-kenyan-population/

Veena World. (2020, October 28). Top 7 tribes in Kenya: Meet the locals. https://www.veenaworld.com/blog/top-tribes-in-kenya-meet-the-locals

International Center for Law and Religion Studies. Religion in Kenya. https://www.iclrs.org/blurb/kenya-country-info/

East Africa Living Encyclopedia. (n.d.). Kenya -Religion. University of Pennsylvania. https://www.africa.upenn.edu/NEH/kreligion.htm

United States Department of State. (2022). International Religious Freedom Report for 2022: Kenya. https://www.state.gov/reports/2022-report-on-international-religious-freedom/kenya/

Dizikes, P. (2015, April 9). Passage from India. MIT News. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. https://news.mit.edu/2015/book-kenya-indian-immigrants-0409

Blackwell, F. (2008). The British Impact on India 1700-1900. Association for Asian Studies, 13(2). https://www.asianstudies.org/publications/eaa/archives/the-british-impact-on-india-1700-1900/

Nyukuri, B. K. (1997, June) The Impact of Past and Potential Ethnic Conflicts on Keyan’s Stability and Development. https://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/Pnach211.pdf

Conciliation Resources. (n.d.). Kenya: the conflict in focus. https://www.c-r.org/programme/horn-africa/kenya-conflict-focus

Oyugi, W. O. (2002. Conflict in Kenya: A Periodic Phenomenon. https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/document?repid=rep1&type=pdf&doi=5408e4d295a9151c81541b54f17c987327d4f0dd

Section 3

Afro Barometer. (2022, March 25). Most Kenyans support multiparty elections, but fewer trust the electoral commission, Afrobarometer survey shows. https://www.afrobarometer.org/articles/most-kenyans-support-multiparty-elections-but-fewer-trust-the-electoral-commission-afrobarometer-survey-shows/

Wike, R., Fetterolf, J., & Parker, B. (2016, October 24). Africa: Majorities in Kenya, Nigeria and South Africa believe that ordinary citizens can influence the government. Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2016/10/24/2-africa-majorities-in-kenya-nigeria-and-south-africa-believe-that-ordinary-citizens-can-influence-the-government/

Grassroots Justice Network. (2022, May). Kenya National Civil Society Centre (KNCSC). https://rb.gy/m1171k

Mwesige, R. (n.d.). Top 10 International Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) in Kenya. Houston Executive Consulting. https://heconsulting.us/top-10-international-non-governmental-organizations-ngos-in-kenya/

ScholarBlogs. (2016, May 2). Ethnic Politics in Kenya. Violence in Twentieth Century Africa. https://scholarblogs.emory.edu/violenceinafrica/ethnic-politics-in-kenya/

Wangare, J. (2022, March 26). Tribes in Kenya: List and details about the Kenyan tribes. Tuko News. https://www.tuko.co.ke/281554-list-tribes-kenya.html

Nnoko-Mewanu, J. (2024, July 31). “It’s like killing culture” Human Rights Impacts of Relocating Tanzania’s Maasai. Human Rights Watch. https://tinyurl.com/3n4ebre7

United States Agency for International Development. (2020, April). Gender Equality & Female Empowerment in Kenya. https://tinyurl.com/zduunp3p

National Council of Law Reporting (2010). The Constitution of Kenya. http://www.parliament.go.ke/sites/default/files/2023-03/The_Constitution_of_Kenya_2010.pdf

Equaldex. (n.d.) LGBT rights in Kenya. https://www.equaldex.com/region/kenya

Afro Barometer. (2022, March 25). Most Kenyans support multiparty elections, but fewer trust the electoral commission, Afrobarometer survey shows. https://www.afrobarometer.org/articles/most-kenyans-support-multiparty-elections-but-fewer-trust-the-electoral-commission-afrobarometer-survey-shows/

United States Department of State. Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor. (2018). 2018 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: Kenya. https://rb.gy/22b1ti

The Kenya Institute for Public Policy Research and Analysis. (2024, June 30). Strengthening Multi-Party Democracy in Kenya to Protect Civil Rights. https://kippra.or.ke/strengthening-multi-party-democracy-in-kenya-to-protect-civil-rights/

National Council of Law Reporting. (2015). Political Parties Act. https://www.iebc.or.ke/uploads/resources/n7k15EbFt4.pdf

Freedom House. (n.d.). Freedom in the World 2023: Kenya https://freedomhouse.org/country/kenya/freedom-world/2023

World Economics. (n.d.). Governance Factors. https://www.worldeconomics.com/Indicator-Data/ESG/Governance.aspx

Transparency International. (n.d.). Our work in Kenya. https://www.transparency.org/en/countries/kenya

Section 4

Kemp, S. (2024, February 23). Digital 2024: Kenya. DataReportal. https://rb.gy/tt33gh

Independent Electoral and Boundaries Commission. (2022). Registered Voters per County for the 2022 General Election. https://www.iebc.or.ke/docs/rov_per_county.pdf

BBC News. (2022, August 15). Kenya elections 2022: Full results of presidential and parliamentary races. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-62444316

Office of the Registrar of Political Parties. (n.d.). List of political parties. https://orpp.or.ke/list-of-political-parties/

Wikipedia. (2024, July 2). List of political parties in Kenya. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_Kenya

Irwin, D. & Kyande, M. (2022, February 9). Interest group representation on government committees in Kenya. National Library of Medicine. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9374897/

Inter-Parliamentary Union (n.d.). Kenya (National Assembly), Electoral system. http://archive.ipu.org/parline-e/reports/2167_B.htm

Section 5

Kongo, Y. & Mugwimi, G. (2024, June 30). Strengthening Multi-Party Democracy in Kenya to Protect Civil Rights. The Kenya Institute for Public Policy Research and Analysis. https://kippra.or.ke/strengthening-multi-party-democracy-in-kenya-to-protect-civil-rights/

United States Department of State. Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor. (2018). 2018 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: Kenya. https://rb.gy/22b1ti

The National Assembly Taskforce on Factsheets, Speaker’s Rulings and Guidelines (2022, August). How Parliament Works. http://www.parliament.go.ke/sites/default/files/2022-08/FS01%20How%20Parliament%20Works.pdf

Parliament of Kenya (2023, May 22). Members of Parliament. http://www.parliament.go.ke/the-national-assembly/mps

Kenya Law Reform Commission. (n.d.). 138. Procedure at presidential election. https://tinyurl.com/38xb3tka

Kabiru. D. (2022, September 26)). Press Release: Chairperson’s Remarks- Launch of the Final Elections Monitoring Report of 2022 Kenyan Elections. Kenya National Commission on Human Rights. https://tinyurl.com/bdfhuzp9

Kenya Law Reform Commission. (n.d.). 152. Cabinet. https://www.klrc.go.ke/index.php/constitution-of-kenya/131-chapter-nine-the-executive/part-3-the-cabinet/320-152-cabinet

The Judiciary. (n.d.). The Judiciary: Overview. https://judiciary.go.ke/overview/

The Judiciary. (n.d.). The Judiciary: High Court of Kenya. https://judiciary.go.ke/home-2/

Center for Effective Global Action. (n.d.). Access to justice in Kenya’s magistrates’ courts. https://tinyurl.com/5xvc5xyu

Kenya Law Reform Commission. (n.d.). 162. System of courts. Constitution of Kenya. https://tinyurl.com/2s4yyjvc

Section 6

World Bank Group. (2021, June 11). Kenya Receives $750 million Boost for COVID-19 Recovery Efforts. https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2021/06/10/kenya-receives-750-million-boost-for-covid-19-recovery-efforts

The National Treasury & Economic Planning. (n.d.). Kenya-IMF Program. https://tinyurl.com/bdev6pxp

Ababa, A. (2023, July 18). IMF approves $1 billion for Kenya after latest loan review. Fana Broadcasting Corporate. https://www.fanabc.com/english/imf-approves-1-billion-for-kenya-after-latest-loan-review/

World Integrated Trade Solutions. (n.d.). Kenya Trade. https://wits.worldbank.org/CountrySnapshot/en/KEN

Kenya Ports Authority. (2018, November 13). Mombasa port breaks new record. https://www.kpa.co.ke/Pages/MombasaPortNewRecord.aspx

Chaolan, W. (2022, July 14). Chinese-built modern railway leads to brighter future for Kenya. People’s Daily Online. http://en.people.cn/n3/2022/0714/c90000-10123174.html

Trading Economics. (n.d.). Kenya exports. https://tinyurl.com/2a3uznyb

Wanja, I. S. (2014). Effects of import substitution trade policies on Kenyas industrialization since independence. Department of Political Science and Public Administration, University of Nairobi. https://tinyurl.com/27pjx26c

The Observatory of Economic Complexity (n.d.). Kenya Exports, Imports, and Trade Partners. https://oec.world/en/profile/country/ken

International Trade Administration. (2024, July 5). Market Overview. https://tinyurl.com/3ssre2f6

African development Bank Group. (2024, February 6). Kenya: African Development Bank Adopts New 5-yr Plan to boost growth and human development. https://www.afdb.org/en/news-and-events/press-releases/kenya-african-development-bank-adopts-new-5-yr-plan-boost-growth-and-human-development-68543

Human Rights Watch. (2024, July 16). Kenya/IMF: Align Economic Reform with Rights. https://tinyurl.com/5852cu2d

Housing and Urban. (2018, February 15). Kenya Slum Upgrading Programme (KENSUP. https://tinyurl.com/74v9ymzm

Mühleisen, M. (2024, July 8). Kenya’s fiscal troubles are largely homemade. Now the country is running out of options. Atlantic Council. https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/new-atlanticist/kenyas-fiscal-troubles-are-largely-homemade-now-the-country-is-running-out-of-options/

Richburg, K. B. (2024, April 9). Is Kenya poised for a takeoff? Maybe, if it can rein in the graft. The Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/2024/04/09/kenya-william-ruto-economy-corruption-democracy/

Kimani, B. (2024, July 10). Moody’s has downgraded Kenya’s credit rating, here’s what that means for the country. Citizen Digital. https://www.citizen.digital/business/moodys-has-downgraded-kenyas-credit-rating-heres-what-that-means-for-the-country-n345600

Reuters (2024, August 23). S&P downgrades Kenya on weaker fiscal and debt trajectory. Reuters. https://tinyurl.com/y7msts3n

O’Neill, A. (2024, July 4). National debt of Kenya in relation to gross domestic product (GDP) 2029. Statista. https://www.statista.com/statistics/451122/national-debt-of-kenya-in-relation-to-gross-domestic-product-gdp/

Section 7

Kenya Embassy (2014, November). Kenya Foreign Policy. https://www.kenyaembassy.org.tr/uploads/Kenya_Foreign_Policy.pdf

World Leaders Forum (2010, September). Mwai Kibaki. Columbia University. https://worldleaders.columbia.edu/directory/mwai-kibaki

Kenya Vision 2030. (n.d.). Kenya Vision 2030. https://vision2030.go.ke/

The National Treasury and Economic Planning. (n.d.). Key investment opportunities. https://www.planning.go.ke/key-investment-opportunities/

The National Treasury and Planning. (2020, October). Summary of key investment opportunities in Kenya. State Department for Planning. https://www.planning.go.ke/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/SUMMARY-Key-Investment-Opp.temp-FINAL-A3.pdf

The National Treasury and Planning. (2020, April). Implementation Status of the Big four Agenda 2018/2019. State Department for Planning. https://www.planning.go.ke/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/Big-Four-Agenda-Report-2018_19.pdf

Office of the Prime Cabinet Secretary and Ministry of Foreign & Diaspora Affairs (n.d.). Kenya successfully concludes her presidency of the UN security council. https://mfa.go.ke/kenya-successfully-concludes-her-presidency-of-the-un-security-council/

Embassy of the Republic of Kenya in the Hague. (n.d.). Kenya and the international organizations. https://kenyaembassy.nl/kenya-and-the-international-organizations/

World Bank Group. (n.d.). Member countries. https://www.worldbank.org/en/about/leadership/members

United Nations. (n.d.). Visitor Service Nairobi: About us. https://www.un.org/en/visit/nairobi/about-us

United Nations Human Rights Office of the High Commissioner (2020, July). UN Human Rights in Kenya. https://tinyurl.com/4rdupj9b

The Intergovernmental Relations Technical Committee (n.d.). Regional economic blocs in Kenya. https://tinyurl.com/7krkubkw

Ministry of Defence – Kenya. (n.d.). https://mod.go.ke/

Macrotrends. (n.d.). Kenya Military Spending/Defense Budget 1960-2024. https://tinyurl.com/

Trading Economics. (n.d.). Kenya – Armed Forces personnel, total. https://tinyurl.com/a4uxxhhc

Legros, J. (2024, June 17). Newest major non-NATO ally Kenya, US begin planning Justified Accord 2025. U.S. Army. https://www.army.mil/article/277323/newest_major_non_nato_ally_kenya_us_begin_planning_justified_accord_2025

United States Department of State. (2023, April 24). Joint Statement on the third U.S.-Kenya Bilateral Strategic Dialogue. United States Department of State. https://tinyurl.com/59hf27n

Vergun, D. (2024, March 19). General says crisis in Haiti requires international response. U.S. Department of Defense. https://www.defense.gov/News/News-Stories/Article/article/3711554/general-says-crisis-in-haiti-requires-international-response/

Omer, S. (2024, May 21). Haiti crisis: Facts, FAQs, and how to help. World Vision. https://tinyurl.com/mr3um5vd

United Nations Human Rights Office of the High Commissioner (2024, June 20). Haiti: Soaring number of displaced desperately need protection and aid priority, UN experts urge. https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2024/06/haiti-soaring-number-displaced-desperately-need-protection-and-aid-priority

Rios, K. I. & Seelke, C. R. (2024, June 7). Haiti in Crisis: What Role for a Multinational Security Support Mission. Members and Committees of Congress. Congressional Research Service. https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/IN/IN12331

Berg, M. & Seligman, L. (2024, May 4). US greenlights $60M in military assistance to Haiti amid rampant gang violence. Politico. https://www.politico.com/news/2024/05/04/us-military-assistance-haiti-violence-00156150

United States Department of State. (2024, September 5). U.S. Relations With Haiti. Office of the Spokesperson. United States Department of State. https://tinyurl.com/5664vsuj