Chapter Outline

Section 1: Brief History

Section 2: Ethnic, Religious, and Cultural Identity

Section 3: Political Culture and Civil Society

Section 4: Political Participation

Section 5: Formal Political Institutions

Section 6: Political Economy

Section 7: Foreign Relations

 

 

Section 1: A Brief History

Canada has a rich and diverse history. The indigenous First Nations people provided the first settlement and French and English people journeyed to the country. Canada gradually gained control over its own affairs with key events such as Confederation in 1867 and the Canadian Charter of Rights in 1982. After Confederation included several initial provinces, new provinces such as Manitoba joined the Dominion of Canada. Newfoundland joined Canada in 1949 after an often tense debate over what direction to take since it had previously had Dominion status. Future Newfoundland Premier Joseph Smallwood waged a tireless campaign for Newfoundland to join Canada As the 1960s began Quebec went through a “Quiet Revolution” and Francophone Quebecois began to advocate for an enhanced role for their language and themselves in society. Conflicts over region and language have impacted and influenced Canadian politics. Recently international trade has taken center stage. Today Canada is a diverse nation with a complex political system.

Canada was initially settled by a variety of first nation groups, many of whom continue to be a presence in the country today. As noted on the Discover Canada website “the Huron-Wendat of the Great Lakes region, like the Iroquois, were farmers and hunters. The Cree and Dene of the Northwest were hunter-gatherers. The Sioux were nomadic, following the bison (buffalo) herd. The Inuit lived off Arctic wildlife. West Coast natives preserved fish by drying and smoking.” (https://www.canada.ca/en/immigration-refugees-citizenship/corporate/publications-manuals/discover-canada/read-online/canadas-history.html). Contact with Europeans would create a difficult and challenging history.

In 1497 the explorer John Cabot began a process of exploration. As noted on the Discover Canada website, “John Cabot, an Italian immigrant to England, was the first to map Canada’s Atlantic shore, setting foot on Newfoundland or Cape Breton Island in 1497 and claiming the New Founde Land for England. English settlement did not begin until 1610.” (https://www.canada.ca/en/immigration-refugees-citizenship/corporate/publications-manuals/discover-canada/read-online/canadas-history.html). French and British colonization occurred during the 17th and 18th century. The 1763 Treaty of Paris following the French and Indian War put French territories under British control.

The unique role of the future province of Quebec was enshrined in the law. As noted on the Discover Canada website, “To better govern the French Roman Catholic majority, the British Parliament passed the Quebec Act of 1774. One of the constitutional foundations of Canada, the Quebec Act accommodated the principles of British institutions to the reality of the province. It allowed religious freedom for Catholics and permitted them to hold public office, a practice not then allowed in Britain. The Quebec Act restored French civil law while maintaining British criminal law.” (https://www.canada.ca/en/immigration-refugees-citizenship/corporate/publications-manuals/discover-canada/read-online/canadas-history.html).

The Constitution Act of 1791 created the provinces of Upper Canada (later the Province of Ontario) and Lower Canada (later the Province of Quebec. Key events in the early twentieth century includes the War of 1812 which occupies a unique place in Canadian history and a revolt in 1837 and 1838.

The modern Canadian political system largely dates from the Confederation of 1867. The British North America Act created the Dominion of Canada which initially included Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick. The Dominion quickly expanded with the additional provinces of Manitoba, British Columbia and Prince Edward Island being added in 1870. In 1905 Alberta and Saskatchewan became provinces of Canada. Newfoundland joined in 1949 as a province as will be explained in more detail below.

Sir John McDonald became the first Prime Minister of Canada in 1867. Late in the twentieth century Sir Wilfred Laurier emerged as a significant Canadian leader and Prime Minister that tried to bridge cultural differences.

In 1931 the British parliament passed the Statute of Westminster which provided dominions such as Australia, Canada and New Zealand “complete autonomy.”
(https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-16841165). Arrangements were finalized in 1947 although the Canadian Constitution would not be patriated until 1982 along with the creation of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.

The center left Liberal Party was dominant in Canadian politics from 1935 to 1957 with Mackenzie King and Louis St. Laurent serving long terms as Prime Minister. During that period Canada began to form an independent foreign policy separate from the United Kingdom.

Canada gained a new province in 1949 with the addition of Newfoundland. Joey Smallwood, who would go to spend more than two decades as the Premier of Newfoundland, spearheaded a move for the crown dependency to join Canada. After contentious debate Newfoundland became part of Canada and Joey Smallwood would go on to dominate provincial politics in Newfoundland as Premier for more than two decades.

The 1957 election of John Diefenbaker brought the center right Progressive Conservative party back to power. Diefenbaker, a rural lawyer from Saskatchewan, was a striking figure in Canadian politics. Perhaps his premier accomplishment was the Canadian Bill of Rights, legislation that helped lay the foundation for the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. Diefenbaker had a charismatic personality and won a resounding election victory in 1958 but struggled to implement his agenda.

Taking office with a minority government in 1963 Prime Minister Lester Pearson would prove to be enormously influential during his time in office with measures such as the creation of the new Canadian flag in 1965 and the Canadian health care system.

During this period tensions between the Francophone Quebecoise and the English speaking population began to increase in Quebec and beyond. This conflict would shape Canadian politics for several decades. The French language and unique culture of Quebec would become subject to a great deal of debate and controversy.

The 1968 election of Liberal Party leader Pierre Trudeau as Prime Minister gave Canada a leader who would have a strong global profile. Trudeau would work to maintain the nation of Canada amidst growing Quebec separatism. Trudeau also worked to patriate the Canadian Constitution from the British parliament.

The creation of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms and the patriation of the Canadian Constitution represented a significant achievement for Canada in 1982. As Canada worked to articulate an identity and governing structure of its own Prime Minister Trudeau also dealt with the Francophone Quebecoise and the continued rise of Quebec separatism. In 1976 the province of Quebec passed Bill 101 which enshrined the role of the French language. There was a failed independence referendum in Quebec in 1980.

Pierre Trudeau was defeated in 1979 by the Progressive Conservatives led by Joe Clark but regained the office of Prime Minister in 1980 and ultimately retired in 1984 to be briefly replaced by John Turner. John Turner and the Liberal Party suffered a large defeat in 1984 with the election of a Progressive Conservative government led by Brian Mulroney.

Prime Minister Brian Mulroney’s tenure from 1984 to 1993 was dominated by efforts to resolve conflict between Canada and the province of Quebec and to expand trade ties with the United States. In the area of trade he was relatively successful with free trade agreements being signed that culminated in the North American Free Trade Agreement between Canada, the United States and Mexico. Efforts to better incorporate Quebec into the constitution order were less successful with the 1990 failure of the Meech Lake Accord that called for Quebec to be considered a distinct society. Suffering from growing unpopularity amidst a weak economy Brian Mulroney stepped down as Prime Minister in 1993 and was replaced by Canada’s first female prime minister Kim Campbell.

Veteran politician and Liberal Party member.Jean Chretien became Prime Minister in 1993 in an election where the governing Progressive Conservative Party was reduced to two seats. Early efforts in the administration to balance the budget by Minister of Finance Paul Martin led to large spending cuts but the budget was brought into balance. The 1995 referendum on independence in Quebec failed narrowly. The North American Free Trade Agreement was implemented.

Conservative Stephen Harper became Prime Minister in 2006. A native of the conservative oil producing Western province of Alberta, he was seen as more conservative than Progressive Conservative Prime Ministers such as Brian Mulroney. Harper made a concerted effort to master the French language

A political dynasty of sorts occurred in Canada with the 2015 election of Justin Trudeau as Prime Minister. Evoking Sir Wilfried Laurier and his idea of Sunny Ways, Trudeau ascended to the office formerly occupied by his father and quickly gained global stature and attention on issues such as refugees. The election of Donald Trump as President of the United States in 2016 created new challenges for the Center left government in areas such as refugees and trade.

The 2025 resignation of Justin Trudeau as Prime Minister combined with the return of Donald Trump as President of the United States helped lead to the somewhat improbable victory of the Liberal Party in the April 28, 2025 Canadian election. Mark Carney, who had only recently taken over from Justin Trudeau, led a campaign that observers even four months earlier when the Liberal Party badly trailed in the polls would have found improbable. Pierre Poilievre, the Conservative leader many thought would bring populism to Canadian national politics lost his own riding in the 2025 election. Early in his tenure, Carney traveled to Washington DC to meet with President Trump where he clarified the sovereignty of Canada.

Another recent development is a movement in the conservative province of Alberta to secede. A referendum may be held but actual secession would be a long process. (https://www.nytimes.com/2025/05/22/world/canada/alberta-separatism-referendum.html)

Canada continues to grow as a nation. The 2021 Canadian census found a population of 36,991,981. (https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2021/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&DGUIDList=2021A000011124&GENDERList=1,2,3&STATISTICList=1,4&HEADERList=0&SearchText=Canada). The estimated population of Canada according to the real time statistical tracker was 41,658,618 as of May 21, 2025. (https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/71-607-x/71-607-x2018005-eng.htm)

Section 2: Ethnic, Religious, and Cultural Identity

Canada has a unique combination of different identities. An officially bi-lingual society, Canada has a prominent first nation presence and has experienced a great deal of immigration. The place of the French language in Canada has occupied a great deal of debate

Section 2.1: Ethnic Identity

French, English and First Nation peoples have long been present in Quebec augmented by large numbers of new immigrants during the twentieth and twenty first centuries. Similar to other Commonwealth nations such as Australia and New Zealand, Canada has both settlers and indigenous people. First Nation people experienced a complicated history with features such as residential schools designed to force assimilation that have not yet been reconciled today. Immigration was restricted in Canada for several decades but in recent decades Canada has had a great deal of immigration in the twentieth century including from countries such as the United Kingdom, Ukraine, India and China.

Ethnic groups

Canadian 15.6%, English 14.7%, Scottish 12.1%, French 11%, Irish 12.1%, German 8.1%, Chinese 4.7%, Italian 4.3%, First Nations 1.7%, Indian 3.7%, Ukrainian 3.5%, Metis 1.5% (2021 est.)

(https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/canada/)

Section 2.2: Religious Identity

Like many developed countries religious practice and observance has declined in recent decades.

The United Church of Canada, which includes four Protestant denominations, for several decades played a major role in Canada. Quebecois and Francophone Canadians have traditionally been closely identified with the Roman Catholic Church. The Quiet Revolution of the 1960s in Quebec weakened the power of the previously dominant Catholic Church. More recently Muslims and Sikhs among other groups have played a prominent role in Canadian society.

Religions

Christian 53.3%, Muslim 4.9%, Hindu 2.3%, Sikh 2.1%, Buddhist 1%, Jewish 0.9%, Traditional (North American Indigenous) 0.2%, other religions and traditional spirituality 0.6%, none 34.6% (2021 est.)

(https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/canada/)

Section 2.3: Cultural Identity

Several salient cultural identities have emerged in Canada. As a large and diverse nation spread over a very large geographical area, crafting an identity unique to Canada has been a challenge. During the 1960s Canada adopted a unique flag and increased the role of the French language. Regional differences between central and Western provinces, the large and populous Ontario province and the Francophone province of Quebec have occurred. Canada has also experienced a large amount of immigration in the past several decades.

Section 2.4: The Role of the French Language

The role of the French language and of Francophone France in particular

The changing role of the French Language in Quebec. As one reporter notes, “Bill 101, or the Charter of the French Language as it’s also known, was introduced by the first-ever Parti Quebecois government, led by then-Premier René Lévesque. It was passed into law on August 26, 1977.”

(Fact file: What is Bill 101? – Montreal | Globalnews.ca)

French language has become an important part of Canadian politics with Prime Ministers expected to be proficient in both languages. During federal election campaigns debates are conducted in both English and French. Mark Carney was able to win support in Quebec despite lacking the strong French language skills of some other Prime Ministers. (https://www.nytimes.com/2025/04/19/world/americas/canada-carney-quebec-french.html_)

Languages

English (official) 87.1%, French (official) 29.1%, Chinese languages 4.2%, Spanish 3.2%, Punjabi 2.6%, Arabic 2.4%, Tagalog 2.3%, Italian 1.5% (2022 est.)

(https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/canada/)

Section 3: Political Culture and Civil Society

Section 3.1: Political Culture

Several factors influence political culture in Canada including language, traditions from the United Kingdom and the British empire, and geopolitical relations. As a consolidated and enduring democracy free and fair elections are held at every level. The province of Quebec has a unique political culture where the French language and a strong interest in culture are evident. Different provinces such as Quebec and Alberta have some variance in political culture based on a variety of issues

Section 3.2 Civil Society

Despite scoring very high on measurements of democracy and civil rights and liberties, problems remain. As Freedom House notes, “Canada has a strong history of respect for political rights and civil liberties, though in recent years citizens have been concerned about laws relating to the administration of elections, government transparency, the treatment of inmates in prisons, and restrictions on public sector employees wearing religious symbols. While Black, Indigenous, and other marginalized Canadians still face discrimination and economic, social, and political challenges, the federal government has acknowledged these problems and made some moves to address them.” (www.freedomhouse.org). Canada has traditionally had robust institutions and civil society in Quebec has traditionally valued culture institutions.

Section 4: Political Participation

Canada has active political participation. At the national levels political parties such as the Liberal Party, the Conservative Party and the New Democratic Party compete for seats in parliamentary ridings. At the provincial level political parties also compete for seats in provincial parliaments. There are also other opportunities to biome involved politically although there continue to be some concerns.

Section 4.1: Political Parties

Canada has several political parties at both the national and the provincial level. Major parties include the Conservative Party, the Liberal Party, the left leaning New Democratic Party (NDP) The national Liberal Party has often dominated national politics. Different provinces such as New Brunswick and British Columbia have their own political party systems.

Specific parties have also emerged at the provincial level and each province has a slightly different party system. This is a marked contrast from the United States where the two main political parties play a similar role in virtually every state with one party dominating an increasing number of states on both sides of the political spectrum.

Section 4.2: Political Participation, Civil Rights and Civil Liberties

The Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms “sets out those rights and freedoms that Canadians believe are necessary in a free and democratic society.” (https://www.canada.ca/en/canadian-heritage/services/how-rights-protected/guide-canadian-charter-rights-freedoms.html). The patriation of the Canadian Constitution in

Several groups have attempted to gain rights in Canada. The French language minority, particularly in Quebec, has striven for language rights and protections. First nation groups have attempted to gain greater recognition and autonomy. Early in the twentieth century there was a movement for greater political participation for women. A group of women known as the Famous Five petitioned in 1927 for women to be able to serve in the Canadian Senate.

Section 5: Formal Political Institutions

As Discover Canada notes, “There are three key facts about Canada’s system of government: our country is a federal state, a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy” (https://www.canada.ca/en/immigration-refugees-citizenship/corporate/publications-manuals/discover-canada/read-online/how-canadians-govern-themselves.html). Below we will explore each of these concepts.

Section 5.1: Federal Government

Canada is a constitutional monarchy and a member of the Commonwealth. The King or Queen of Canada is the Head of State. The Governor General served as the King’s representative and the Head of State. The Governor General is appointed by the King or Queen on the advice of the Prime Minister. The Governor General is a largely ceremonial position with real executive power residing with the Prime Minister and the Cabinet.

There is currently a 343 member House of Representatives elected through individual ridings (single member districts) and an appointed 105 member Senate. Senators are appointed by the Governor General on the advice of the Prime Minister. The appointed Senators may serve until the age of 75. The Canadian House and Senate work to pass laws which are then given royal assent by the Governor General.

The Prime Minister is generally the leader of the largest political party in the House of Representatives. The Prime Minister leads the government and the cabinet. Elections must occur at least once every five years.

(https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/canada/)

The Supreme Court of Canada is the highest court in Canada. It consists of a Chief Justice and 8 additional judges. There are also several levels of lower courts. Here is an image of Canada’s complete judicial system:

Source:https://www.justice.gc.ca/eng/csj-sjc/just/07.html

Canada also has provinces and municipalities with their own governance structure. The province of Quebec in particular is known for seeking autonomy but the energy rich province of Alberta has also changed at federal intervention.

Section 5.2: Provincial Government

As noted above, Canada is a federal state where provinces have their own political systems and set policy in a wide variety of areas. Canada has a lively mix of provincial governments and political systems. The province of Quebec has often been animated by questions of the role of the French Language. Provinces vary widely in population ranging from Prince Edward Island with a small population of to the large and populous Ontario. Provinces often have slightly different party systems than that of the national level.

Section 5.3: Municipal Government

Municipal government is the third level of government in Canada. Throughout the provinces there are a variety of local governments. Some large city mayors such as Mayor Jean Drapeau of Montreal and Rob Ford of Toronto have become prominent political figures. Drapeau developed the City of Montreal including facilities for the 1976 Olympics and Ford had a unique appeal and colorful reputation.

Section 5.4: Constitutional Infrastructure

The Canadian Constitution was patriated in 1982 and the Canadian Constitution includes the Constitution Acts 1867 to 1982. (https://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/Const/index.html). The Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms provides protections in the area of civil liberties and has served as an international model.

Section 6: Political Economy

Section 6.1: Economy of Canada

The Canadian economy has a basis in commodities such as oil, manufacturing in areas such the auto industry and a wide variety of services. International trade has often been a hallmark of the Canadian economy with a large amount of trade going to the United States.

There are regional conflicts regarding the economy. The oil producing province of Alberta has often chafed at federal intervention and control. Different parts of the country have different economic bases with some regions dominated by agriculture and energy while others depend on manufacturing and services.

Section 6.2: Trade

The United States has long been the largest trading partner of Canada’s, currently accounting for 71% of Canadian exports. (https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/canada/) Free trade agreements including most recently the USMCA (United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement) that was an update of the sometimes controversial North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). The 2024 election of Donald Trump created new challenges in the area of trade.

Canada has pursued a variety of trading relationships with other countries as well. Like many other countries it has pursued a trade relationship with China. Canada has 15 free trade agreements (https://www.investcanada.ca/market-access?creative=722167492511&keyword=fta%20canada&matchtype=p&network=g&device=c&gad_source=1&gad_campaignid=11930519181&gbraid=0AAAAABv7vzYnD7c0GAANGjyuODszMlNGe&gclid=Cj0KCQjwlrvBBhDnARIsAHEQgOS69HNw8NAL8KaEc2lB__U9l2XIRYZV3yZ4r53S5Ddl2zS4jlm6ccAaAkKDEALw_wcB) with countries such as Colombia, Israel, Korea and Peru. The focus on international trade has long been a hallmark of the Canadian economy.

Section 7: Foreign Relations

Section 7.1: Foreign Relations

As Canada evolved from a Dominion of the United Kingdom, the nation began to develop a unique foreign policy. Relations with the United Kingdom and countries in the Commonwealth, the United States and developing nations have all played a role. Canada has played a prominent role in the development of international institutions such as the United Nations.

Section 7.2: Relations with the United States

One author described the history of Canada-Relations as”reconcilable differences” (Azzi 2014) although recent conflicts over trade have developed. Canada has often been one of the closest allies of the United States. One way in which Canada has stood out is the maintenance of ties with the nation of Cuba after the 1959 revolution that led to the leadership of Fidel Castro. This is in strong contrast with the hard line generally taken by the United States. More recently relations with the United States have changed with the election of Donald Trump to a second term in 2024. Trump criticized what he saw as the imbalance in US-Canada relations with a particular focus on trading conditions.

Section 7.3: Relations with the United Kingdom and the Commonwealth

Like similar nations such as Australia, Canada began to develop an independent foreign policy especially in the years after World War II. Prime Minister John Diefenbaker, who served from 1957 to 1963, put a particular emphasis on relations with the United Kingdom but future leaders pursued a broader strategy. Canada continues to be an active participant in the Commonwealth and to maintain close relations with the United Kingdom.

Section 7.4: Relations with Other Nations

Canada has developed a variety of foreign relations with nations around the world and as noted above has often focused a great deal of attention on international trade. One area of foreign policy where Canada has only recently become involved is the Western Hemisphere. Canada did not join the Organization of American States until 1990. Canada has also had increased relations and sometimes conflict with India and China.

Section 7.5: Canada and International Institutions

Canada has played an important role in international institutions such as the League of Nations and the United Nations. Canada is also a founding member of NATO. (https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-16841165) Future Prime Minister Lester Pearson received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1957 and Canada has long played a central role in the international community. Canada joined the Organization of American States in 1990, showing an enhanced involvement in the affairs of the Western Hemisphere.

Key Terms/Glossary

Bilingualism: Bilingualism refers to being fluent in two languages and also refers to the official policy of Canada regarding the English and French languages.

Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms: This document adopted in 1982 is part of the Constitution of Canada and includes the civil liberties and civil rights that Canadians have.

First Nation: First Nations people are the indigenous people of Canada.

NAFTA: The North American Free Trade Agreement is a trade agreement between Canada, Mexico and the United States that was replaced by the USMCA.

USMCA: The United States Mexico Canada Agreement replaced NAFTA.

Suggestions for Further Study

David Cook-Martín and David Scott FitzGerald. 2014. Culling the Masse: The Democratic Origins of Racist Immigration Policy in the Americas. Harvard University Press.

Stephen Azzi. 2014. Reconcilable Differences: A History of Canada-US Relations. Oxford University Press.

THE CONSTITUTION ACTS 1867 to 1982 Retrieved from (https://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/Const/index.html)

Discover Canada Website: (https://www.canada.ca/en/immigration-refugees-citizenship/corporate/publications-manuals/discover-canada/read-online/canadas-history.html).

Epp, Charles R. 1996. “Do Bills of Rights Matter? The Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.” American Political Science Review 90 (4): 765–779. https://doi.org/10.2307/2945841

Findlay, Tammy.  2022. “Intersectionalities of Opportunism: Justin Trudeau and the Politics of ‘Diversity.’” International Journal of Canadian Studies 60 (March): 40–59. https://doi.org/10.3138/ijcs.60.x.40

Freedom House Website: www.freedomhouse.org

Text of USMCA: https://www.trade.gov/usmca#:~:text=United%20States%2DMexico%2DCanada%20Agreement,economic%20growth%20in%20North%20America.

 

References

Canada Profile Timeline (2025) Retrieved from: https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-16841165

Census Profile, 2021 Census (2021) Retrieved from: https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2021/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&DGUIDList=2021A000011124&GENDERList=1,2,3&STATISTICList=1,4&HEADERList=0&SearchText=Canada

CIA World Factbook (2025) Retrieved from:  https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/canada/

THE CONSTITUTION ACTS 1867 to 1982 Retrieved from (https://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/Const/index.html)

Discover Canada (2025) Retrieved from (https://www.canada.ca/en/immigration-refugees-citizenship/corporate/publications-manuals/discover-canada/read-online/canadas-history.html).

What is Bill 101? – Montreal | Globalnews.ca) (2025) Retrieved from:  https://globalnews.ca/news/1237519/fact-file-what-is-bill-101/

Freedom House (2025) Retrieved from: www.freedomhouse.org

Guide to the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms (2025) Retrieved from https://www.canada.ca/en/canadian-heritage/services/how-rights-protected/guide-canadian-charter-rights-freedoms.html

Invest Canada (2025) Retrieved from (https://www.investcanada.ca/market-access?creative=722167492511&keyword=fta%20canada&matchtype=p&network=g&device=c&gad_source=1&gad_campaignid=11930519181&gbraid=0AAAAABv7vzYnD7c0GAANGjyuODszMlNGe&gclid=Cj0KCQjwlrvBBhDnARIsAHEQgOS69HNw8NAL8KaEc2lB__U9l2XIRYZV3yZ4r53S5Ddl2zS4jlm6ccAaAkKDEALw_wcB)

Vjosa Isai and Matina Stevis-Gridneff “Alberta Stands Apart in Canada. Now It Plans a Long-Shot Bid to Secede.”  New York Times May 22, 2025 https://www.nytimes.com/2025/05/22/world/canada/alberta-separatism-referendum.html 

Onishi, Norimitsu. “Despite His Shaky French, Canada’s Prime Minister is a Hit in Quebec.” New York Times April 19, 2025 https://www.nytimes.com/2025/04/19/world/americas/canada-carney-quebec-french.html

Model of Canadian Judicial System (2025): https://www.justice.gc.ca/eng/csj-sjc/just/07.html